<p><p>An&nbsp;analgesic&nbsp;or&nbsp;painkiller&nbsp;is
any member of the group of&nbsp;drugs&nbsp;used
to achieve analgesia, relief from&nbsp;pain. Analgesic drugs act in various
ways on the&nbsp;peripheral&nbsp;and&nbsp;central&nbsp;nervous
systems. They are distinct from&nbsp;anesthetics, which
temporarily affect, and in some instances completely eliminate,&nbsp;sensation. </p>

<p>Analgesics include acetaminophen, the&nbsp;nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs&nbsp;(NSAIDs) such as the&nbsp;salicylates, and&nbsp;opioid&nbsp;drugs
such as&nbsp;morphine&nbsp;and&nbsp;oxycodone. They can be highly addictive.</p><p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Oxycontin.jpg" alt="Oxycontin" width="420" height="237" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_right"></p>

<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->o&nbsp;&nbsp;
<!--[endif]-->Tramadol is
an opiate analgesic – one of the weaker opiate analgesics, it is used to treat
moderate to moderate-severe pain.</p><p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/tramadol.jpg" alt="tramadol" width="200" height="150" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_left"><h1><a name="_Toc14686155">Opiates</a> </h1>

<p>Opiates include tramadol, oxycodone, morphine, &nbsp;codeine,&nbsp;hydrocodone,&nbsp;dihydromorphine,&nbsp;pethidine</p>

<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Effects
include:</p>

<p><ul><li>Slowing in the delta range</li><li>&nbsp;Greater
alpha synchron</li><li>&nbsp; Burst
suppression pattern in neonates</li><li>Enhancement of epileptiform
activity</li></ul></p>

<p>The
below data is a patient with addiction to pain killers, namely tramadol,
oxycontin, and hydrocodone. These medications are known for their addictive
properties. Tramadol is an opiate that acts as an SNRI, which occupies a
serotonin transporter in the thalamus. This drug can produce a spike wave
discharge (giving rise to seizure), however the more common findings are less
remarkable: greater alpha synchrony and somewhat heightened beta amplitudes. </p>

<p>&nbsp;<h3><a name="_Toc14686156">Figure xx: The 5 – 6Hz rhythm we see prominent at O2 and T6&nbsp; is a paroxysmal transient that occurs when the
patient has closed eyes</a>, opiate addict.</h3><p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/5-6hz.png" alt="5-6Hz" width="744" height="1089" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_left"><br></p></p><br></p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><h5><br></h5><h5><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Slow%20Content.png" alt="Slow Content" width="714" height="456" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom"><br></h5><h5>Figure xx: The slow content that gives rise to seizure activity in an opiate
addict.</h5><br></p><p><br></p><p>Figure xx:&nbsp;</p><p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/beta%20spindles.png" alt="Beta Spindlse" width="691" height="1102" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_right"><span style="font-size: 1rem;">The spindling beta is
a sign of an easily kindled cortex, which gives rise to epileptiform content.
Opiate addict.</span></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><h5><br></h5><h5>Figure xx: Image of high
amplitude spindling beta in an opiate addict.</h5>

<p>&nbsp;<img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/map.png" alt="map" width="718" height="451" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom"></p>

<p>Figures xx and xx (above) shows a fast spindling beta
frequency. This is a kindling frequency, which means that it is this fast
spindling frequency that ultimately leads to the slow transient discharge that
is ultimately the problem. In this case, the spindling beta represents an
irritable cortex—one that is easily “kindled,” meaning that it easily sets off
an event. </p><p><br></p><p><br></p><br></p><p><br></p>