<p></p>
<h1><a name="_Toc28940422">BRODMANN AREAS</a></h1>
<p>The initial approach to understanding what part of the brain controlled what function was the legacy of Sir Charles Scott Sherrington (1857 – 1952) who found that different parts of the brain have different cellular architecture and control different functions and sensations. And in 1909, Korbinian Brodmann discovered that different regions of the brain had different cellular architecture, which he divided into numbered areas (today called “Brodmann areas”). &nbsp;He dissected the brain into 52
    distinct regions. The cerebellar cortex is also subdivided into nearly a hundred areas. Currently, we know that each of these divisions is composed of characteristic neuronal circuits that consist of numerous neurons of diverse types interconnected with each other via synapses.</p>
<h4>Sir Charles Scott Sherrington (Left) and Korbinian Brodmann (Right)</h4>
<p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/K%20Brodmann.jpg" alt="K Brodmann" width="400" height="594" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Sherrington.jpg" alt="Sherrington" width="400" height="594" class="atto_image_button_right"><br></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc28940423">Original Cortical Atlas by Brodmann, Colorized Lateral View of the left hemisphere</a></h3>
<p style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Toc28940423"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Brodmann%201.png" alt="Brodmann areas" width="800" height="561" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom"><br></a></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc28940424">The 52 Brodmann areas of the brain</a></h3>
<p></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><a name="_Toc28940424"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/brodmann%202.png" alt="brodmann 2" width="621" height="277"><br></a></p>
<p><a name="_Toc28940424"></a></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc28940424">Brodmann area functions</a></h3>
<a name="_Toc28940424">
    <p>8 sub-categories or groupings</p>
    <p>Areas not in humans include: 14, 15, 27 and 49</p>
    <p>1)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;executive functioning (9, 10, 44, 45, 46)</p>
    <p>2)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;motor (4, 6, 8)</p>
    <p>3)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;somatosensory (1, 2, 3, 5, 40, 31)</p>
    <p>4)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;attention (7, 39)</p>
    <p>5)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;visual (17, 18, 19, 15, 16)</p>
    <p>6)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;memory (20, 21, 37, 28, 36)</p>
    <p>7)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Emotional regulation (11, 38, 47, 13)</p>
    <p>8)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sound (22, 41, 42)</p>
    <p>9)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Primary Gustatory Area (43) Olfactory (34)</p>
    <p>&nbsp;</p>
</a>
<h3><a name="_Toc28940425">BAs 3, 1,and 2</a></h3>
<h4><a name="_Toc28940424"></a></h4>
<p><a name="_Toc28940425"></a></p>
<p><a name="_Toc28940425">This region is the primary somatosensotry cortex and is located at the post central gyrus of the brain (behind the Rolandic Fissure). It is divided into Brodmann areas 1, 2, 3a, and 3b. 3b is thought to be the primary somato-sensory cortex, and projects the outputs received from 3a to Brodmann areas 1 and 2. BA 3 mediates bodily sensations, because its wired to pathways bringing touch, pain, and temperature signals from the spinal cord, BA1 gets information on texture and Brodmann area 2 gets information on the size and the shape of an object. How cool is that?</a></p>
<p></p>
<h4>Brodmann areas 1, 2, and 3</h4><p style="text-align: center;"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA%20123.png" alt="BA 123" width="400" height="375" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom" style="font-size: 1rem;"></p>
<p></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><a name="_Toc28940424"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA123.png" alt="BA 123" width="625" height="464"><br></a></p>
<p><a name="_Toc28940424"></a></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc28940424">BA 4</a></h3>
<p><a name="_Toc28940424">Brodmann area 4 is the primary motor cortex of the brain and is located at the pre central sulcus.&nbsp; It is considered the most posterior part of the frontal lobe. BA 4 controls movements of the body and sends many axons to the spinal cord, which in turn is wired to the muscles of the body.</a></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><a name="_Toc28940424"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA%204.png" alt="BA 4" width="498" height="764" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle"><br></a></p><a name="_Toc28940424">This region is the region of the motor homunculus, which is mainly involved in controlling voluntary dynamic, kinesthetic movements. It is responsible for motor (finger, hand wrist, lip tongue, face, mouth, and lower limb movement, as well as eye movements and blinking and learning motor sequences. This area is also responsible for somatosensory perception, such as finger moving and touch , and kinesthetic perception of limb movements. This region as the main motor center of the brain, initiates the onset of movements, mainly produced by contraction of skeletal muscle. These impulses pass via the internal capsule to the spinothalamic tract in the spinal cord, both parts of the pyramidal system.&nbsp;<br><br><br><br></a><a name="_Toc28940427" style="color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 2.143rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">BA 5</a><br>
<p>Brodmann area 5 is part of the parietal cortex, making up the superior parietal lobe as part of the post central gyrus. It is right behind Brodmann areas 1, 2, and 3, the primary somatosensory cortex. This area is involved with spatial orientation, and
    receives a great deal of visual input as well as sensory input from one's hand. The postcentral gyrus is the principal somatic (of the body) sensory area. It is the end-point of sensory information from the skin (for touch, pain, pressure and temperature sensation) and from the spindle organs in the joints (for position sense).&nbsp;</p><p style="text-align: center;"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA5.png" alt="BA5" width="479" height="764" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle"></p>
<p>Comprehensively, this area is responsible for generating actions, moving hands, moving limbs, sensing of our fingers, experiencing softness and vibration, moving tongue and mouth, swallowing, voluntary breathing, imagining actions, blinking and eye movements,
    the mirror neuron system, and verbal encoding. The slow Beta rhythm of 13-14 hz was once used in neurofeedback training as a means of reducing seizure and adding calm to patients otherwise stricken with anxiety. The lack of this particular bandwidth in this region suggests a lack of proprioceptive awareness and potentially a more anxious state.</p>
<p><br></p>
<h2><a name="_Toc28940428">BA 6</a></h2>
<p>BA 6 are part of the frontal lobe and lies anterior to the motor cortex (Brodmann area 4). The functions of Brodmann area 6 are the premotor cortex are diverse and project directly to the&nbsp;spinal cord.&nbsp;This region, therefore, may play a role in the direct control of behavior, with a relative emphasis on the&nbsp;trunk muscles&nbsp;of the body. It may also play a role in planning movement, in the spatial guidance of movement, in the sensory guidance of movement, in understanding the actions of others, and in using abstract rules to perform specific&nbsp;tasks. This area is also responsible for intention.</p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Brodmann%20area%206.png" alt="Brodmann area 6" width="481" height="764" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom"></p>
<h2><a name="_Toc28940429"></a><a name="_Toc16242834"></a><a name="_Toc525053908">BA 7</a></h2>
<p>Brodmann area 7 part of the parietal cortex of the brain and located posterior to the&nbsp;primary somatosensory cortex&nbsp;(Brodmann areas 3, 1 and 2), and superior to the&nbsp;occipital lobe. This region is believed to play a role in&nbsp;visuo-motor
    coordination&nbsp;(e.g. tool use, reaching to grasp an object, handwriting, and visuospatial attention.&nbsp;(e.g., in reaching to grasp an object). In addition, area 7 along with&nbsp;area 5&nbsp;has been linked to a wide variety of high-level processing tasks, including activation in association with language use.<sup>[2]</sup>&nbsp;This function in language has been theorized to stem from how these two regions play a vital role in generating&nbsp;conscious&nbsp;constructs of objects in the world,
    including self-reflection.</p><p style="text-align: center;"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA7.png" alt="Brodmann area 7" width="480" height="764" style="font-size: 1rem;" class="atto_image_button_text-bottom"></p>
<p></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc28940430">BA 8</a></h3>
<p>Brodmann area 8 is anterior to Brodmann area 6 and is part of the frontal cortex. It includes the frontal eye fields (so that if one has a stroke on injury to the brain in this region, the eyes will drift towards the injury. It is involved in the management
    of uncertainty, as well as the encoding of hope (a higher-order expectation positively correlated with uncertainty).</p>
<h2><a name="_Toc28940431"></a><br></h2><p style="text-align: center;"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA8.png" alt="498" width="480" height="758" style="font-size: 1rem;" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom"></p>
<h2><a name="_Toc525053909">BA 9 and 10</a></h2>
<p>Brodmann area 9 located in the pre-frontal cortex is responsible for executive memory, abstract thinking, intentionality and motivation, memory (working memory, spatial memory, short term memory, memory encoding and recognition, memory retrieval, forgetting),
    motor skills, error detection, inductive reasoning, language skills (verbal fluency, metaphor comprehension, semantic categorization, verbal fluency, word-stem completion, generating sentences, etc). This area is underactive in individuals dealing
    with bipolar depressive disorders. Left BA9 is responsible for empathy, processing pleasant and unpleasant emotional scenes, self-criticism, and attention to negative emotions.</p><p style="text-align: center;"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA9.png" alt="BA9" width="480" height="764" class="atto_image_button_middle"></p>
<p>Right BA9 is responsible for attention to positive emotions, recognizing the emotions of others, attributing intention, suppressing sadness, theory of mind, working memory and spatial memory, as well as planning, calculation, and religiosity.</p>
<p></p>
<h2><a name="_Toc28940432"></a><a name="_Toc16242836"></a><a name="_Toc525053910">BA 10</a></h2>
<p><a name="_Hlk28777532">Brodmann area 10 is the anterior-most portion of the pre-frontal cortex. Overall, this area of the brain governs working memory; spatial memory; recognition; recall; intentional forgetting; recognizing emotions; calculation; pain; organization, maintenance, and implementation of intentions, source monitoring (who said what information), logical inference, hypometabolism in bipolar disorder (with paralimbic, insula, and cingulate hypermetabolism).</a></p><p><a name="_Toc28940433" style="color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.715rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"><br></a></p><p><a name="_Toc28940433" style="color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.715rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Brodmann area 10L</a><br></p>
<p>Brodmann area 10L is responsible for self-reflection (about one's own abilities, traits and attitudes), Syntax, Metaphor, Lexical processing, Verbs, Self-reflection, Self-appraise, Inferences during reading,&nbsp; Forgiveability judgment (of a crime),
    the integration of disparate relationships, dysfunction during remission in major depression, and the execution of delayed intentions.</p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA10.png" alt="BA10" width="498" height="764" class="atto_image_button_middle"><br></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc28940434">Brodmann area 10 R</a></h3>
<p><a name="_Hlk28777561">Brodmann area 10 is responsible for recalling episodes, nonspeech sounds,&nbsp; familiar odors, reward vs conflict, risk vs benefit, and carrying out delayed intentions.</a></p>
<h2><a name="_Toc28940435"><br></a></h2>
<h2><a name="_Toc28940435" style="color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-size: 2.143rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">BA 11</a><br></h2>

<p><a name="_Hlk28777582"></a><a name="_Hlk522463468">BA11 is the
orbito-frontal cortex, right above the eye sockets. It governs personal and
social behavior, emotion, and decision making</a>, the formation and retrieval of temporal context of episodic information. In addition, this part of the brain is responsible for e<span style="font-size: 1rem;">ncoding of new material, olfaction, nonspeech sounds, reward vs conflict.</span></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 1rem;"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA11.png" alt="BA11" width="498" height="764" class="atto_image_button_middle"></span></p>

<h4>BA11 L is responsible for</h4>

<p></p>
<ul>
    <li>Unexpected outcomes </li>
    <li>Idioms </li>
    <li>Face-name recognition</li>
</ul>
<p></p>







<h4>BA 11R is responsible for</h4>

<p></p>
<ul>
    <li><a name="_Hlk28777602">Experience of happiness </a></li>
    <li>Self-calm </li>
    <li>Conscious perception of odors </li>
    <li>Empathy (Judge others' emotional states) and forgiveness judgments </li>
</ul>
<p><br></p>
<p><a name="_Toc28940436" style="color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 2.143rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">BA 12</a><br></p>

<p>Brodmann did not identify area 12 in humans, but it has been located as part of the orbito-frontal cortex, linked to taste perception, decision making and mental time travel. </p>
<p style="text-align: center;">&nbsp;<img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA12.png" alt="BA12" width="480" height="764" style="text-align: center; " class="atto_image_button_middle"></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p style="text-align: center;"></p><br><br>
<p></p>
<p></p>
<h2><a name="_Toc28940437">BA 13 and 16: The Insula</a></h2>

<p>The lateral ﬁssure, when “opened,” reveals some buried cortical tissue; this area is called the insula. This area is responsible for receiving taste sensations, relayed from the brainstem, and olfactory sensation.</p>

<p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA13.png" alt="BA13" width="429" height="287" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_left"><br>
    <!--[endif]-->
</p>

<p><a name="_Hlk521876326">The insula is also responsible for the processing of sensation,
motor movements and motor planning, verbal memory, motivational reasoning,
vocal pitch, humor appreciation, risk taking, the expression of fear and
disgust. The right side is responsible for gating affect and impulse, including
explosivity, unreasonable responses, and the like. </a></p>

<p>The anterior insula has been shown to play a part in the mental conditioning of pain perception—in a sense, the thought pattern associated with pain means that “the worse it gets the worse it gets.” The more the individual catastrophizes, ruminates, worries,
    and focuses on the pain, the greater the expectation and manifestation of the pain.</p><p>The granular posterior insula processes tactile,
auditory, and visual somatosensation. Craig (2004), found that there is
expansion of the right anterior insula and adjacent orbitofrontal cortices in
therapists and other folks who are empathically attuned.<br></p><p>The chemoarchitecture of the&nbsp;<b>insula</b>, especially the&nbsp;<b>anterior</b>, agranular&nbsp;<b>insula</b>, supports its role in motivation, emotion and addiction. The agranular&nbsp;<b>insula</b>&nbsp;receives strong&nbsp;<b>dopaminergic</b>&nbsp;innervation and contains a high density of D<sub>1</sub>&nbsp;<b>dopamine</b>&nbsp;receptors.<br></p>

<p>The insular cortex is thought to connect to the sensory inputs from our internal organs. It serves interoception, the perception of information that arises from the center of the body and contributes to the felt sense of being. It also rules proprioception,
    the sense of how one’s body feels.&nbsp; It also inhibits the firing of the amygdala. Early emotional trauma that interferes with the experience-dependent maturation of the insula and negatively impacts its role in generating an image of one’s physical
    state (body image), a process that underlies the experiencing of basic emotions (Schore, 2003, p. 202).</p>

<p>Craig (2004), found that there is expansion of the right anterior insula and adjacent orbitofrontal cortices in therapists and other folks who are empathically attuned.</p>
<h5><a name="_Toc28940438">BAs 14 and 15 do not exist in
humans.</a></h5><p><a name="_Toc28940438"><br></a></p>

<h2><a name="_Toc28940439"></a><a name="_Toc16242837"></a><a name="_Toc525053911">BA 17, 18 and 19</a></h2>

<p>These regions are located at the occipital lobe and visual nerves run straight from the visual cortex to the visual association cortex. </p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA%2017%2018%2019.png" alt="BA 17" width="600" height="212" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_left">
<h2><a name="_Toc28940440"></a><a name="_Toc16242838"></a><a name="_Toc525053912">BA 17</a></h2>

<p>Brodmann area 17 is important in the perception of light intensity, distinguishing visual patterns, contours, colors and motion. It is involved in spatial orientation and transmits information to the dorsal stream and the ventral stream. The dorsal stream
    is the “where pathway” which is associated with motion, representation of object locations, and control of the eyes and arms. The ventral stream is the “what pathway” and is associated with form recognition and object representation. It is associated
    with the storage of long-term memory. This area is involved with the discrimination of shapes, textures, objects and faces.</p>

<h2><a name="_Toc28940441"></a><a name="_Toc16242839"></a><a name="_Toc525053913">BA 18</a></h2>

<p>Brodmann area 18 is important for the perception of light intensity, motion, and in the monitoring of color, shape, and visual patterns. Face-name association and word-face encoding are related to this area. If visual agnosia is present, the ability to
    track visual motion patterns and discriminate finger gestures may be compromised, as may be orientation and selective attention (another possibility is that these things may be heightened).</p>

<p>&nbsp;</p>

<h2><a name="_Toc28940442"></a><a name="_Toc16242840"></a><a name="_Toc525053914">BA 19</a></h2>

<p>Brodmann area 19 is the associative visual area. It is also used for light intensity and pattern detection. This region comprises parts of the lingual gyrus, the cuneus, the middle occipital gyrus, and the superior occipital gyrus. This area is important
    in the spatial orientation of the stimulus.&nbsp; This area is also implicated in the focusing of attention and the phonological properties of written words. &nbsp;</p>

<p>The cuneus is responsible for the evaluation of stimuli. It is also implicated in the recall of episodic memory and has a role in pain perception. It is important in attention comprehension and visual processing. (Choo et al., 2012; Choo et al., 2009).
    It also plays a key role in the integration and synthesis of almost all sensory input.&nbsp; This area is also implicated in the distinction of self from other (Thompson &amp; Thompson, 2015). There is the possibility that one may feel anterograde
    amnesia when it is damaged. This area, lastly, is involved in the identification of pain and has connections to the hippocampus, the posterior parietal cortex, the posterior parahippocampal gyrus, and the dorsal striatum (all implicated in memory)
    (Thompson &amp; Thompson, 2015).</p>
<p></p><h2><a name="_Toc525053914"><br></a></h2><h2><a name="_Toc525053914">BA 20</a></h2><br>Brodmann area 20 is the inferior temporal lobe. This region is implicated in the higher levels of the ventral stream of visual processing and the representation of complex object features. It also contains the fusiform gyrus and is thought to be involved
    in face perception. The most common symptom of inferior temporal lobe damage is&nbsp;visual agnosia, which involves impairment in the identification of familiar objects.&nbsp;
<p></p><p style="text-align: center;"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA%2020.png" alt="BA13" width="476" height="764" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle" style="font-size: 1rem;"></p><h2><a name="_Toc28940444"></a><a name="_Toc16242841"></a><a name="_Toc525053915">BA 21 and BA 22</a></h2>

<p>Brodmann areas 21 is over the temporal lobe, encompassing most of the lateral temporal cortex. This region is also referred to as the middle temporal cortex. This region is linked to sentence generation and word processing, specifically:</p>

<p></p>
<ul>
    <li>Word generation </li>
    <li>Monitor speech </li>
    <li>Repeating words </li>
    <li>Complex sounds </li>
    <li>Deductive reasoning </li>
    <li>Categorization </li>
    <li>Observe motion </li>
    <li>Complex sounds</li>
    <li>Mirror neuron system</li>
</ul>
<p></p>

















<p style="text-align: left;">BA 21 is vital for long term memory, like facts and events. The structures in the medial temporal gyrus include the hippocampus, the amygdala, brainstems and other regions critical for memory formation and storage.</p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p style="text-align: center;"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA21.png" alt="BA21" width="480" height="764" class="atto_image_button_middle"></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p>

<p>This area also holds the primary auditory cortex which is involved in high level auditory processing, and the processing of speech and words. This is an area where auditory signals from the cochlea reach the cerebral cortex and are processed by the primary
    auditory cortex. The ventral part of the temporal cortices are involved in high-level visual processing of complex stimuli such as faces and scenes, and the anterior parts are for object perception and recognition. <sup></sup></p>

<p>Damage in this areas would lead to disturbance of auditory sensation and perception, disturbance of selective attention of auditory and visual input, disorders of visual perception, impaired organization and categorization of verbal material, disturbance
    of language comprehension, impaired long-term memory, and altered personality and affective behavior (Kolb &amp; Wilshaw, 1990).</p>
<p></p>
<h2><a name="_Toc28940445"></a><a name="_Toc16242843"></a><a name="_Toc525053917">BA
22</a></h2>
<p style="text-align: center;"><a name="_Toc525053917"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA22.png" alt="BA22" width="480" height="701" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle"><br></a></p>

<p>Brodmann area 22 is also known as Wernicke’s area, which is essential for auditory working memory. Responsible for auditory perception and processing, this is responsible for high-level auditory processing. It is possible that damage to this area would
    show a lack of discrimination for auditory detail, as well as difficulty in sentence generation. The left&nbsp;hemisphere&nbsp;helps with generation and understanding of individual words. On the right side of the brain it helps to discriminate&nbsp;pitch&nbsp;and
    sound&nbsp;intensity, both of which are necessary to perceive&nbsp;melody&nbsp;and&nbsp;prosody. This part of the brain is active in&nbsp;processing language&nbsp;and is part of&nbsp;Wernicke's area. The other main region included in Wernicke's area
    is&nbsp;Brodmann area 40, the&nbsp;supramarginal gyrus.</p>
<h2>BA 23</h2>

<p>Brodmann area 23 is part of the posterior cingulate cortex (PCC). This area is also known as&nbsp;ventral posterior cingulate area 23. <a name="_Hlk529261768">The PCC is a highly connected node in the brain. This is a fundamental
area of intersection for all of the networks in the brain to convene and converge
into what is called the rich club. </a>The name “rich club” is analogous to social systems, where highly central individuals— being rich in connections—form a highly interconnected club (Zhou &amp; Mondragon, 2004). Rich clubs are very similar to the
    substation system in power grids. The substations are there to facilitate the transmission of power, disseminating loads at appropriate intervals to conjoining substations, allowing for the ease of transmission and the prevention of system failure.
</p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA23.png" alt="BA23" width="498" height="761" class="atto_image_button_middle"></p>
<p><span style="font-size: 1rem;">The posterior cingulate cortex
mediates the person's&nbsp;</span><span style="font-size: 1rem;">recognition &nbsp;of the existence
in space. The precuneus is here and it may hold a good deal of a
person's autobiographical &nbsp;memory, and in that, her sense of identity.
This area is poorly infused with blood
in fMRI studies of the DMN in patients with developmental trauma.
</span><b style="font-size: 1rem;">The precuneus &nbsp;is</b><span style="font-size: 1rem;">
</span><b style="font-size: 1rem;">suggested
to be the 'core node' or 'hub' of the default mode network, a web of&nbsp;</b><span style="font-size: 1rem;">connections that are activated during
"resting consciousness" in which people
do not engage intentionally in sensory or motor &nbsp;activity. This involvement in the default network &nbsp;is suggested to underlie its role in self-consciousness. It is one of the areas of the brain most deactivated
during slow-wave sleep and rapid eye
movement sleep and &nbsp;is involved in memory tasks, including episodic memory, source memory,
and contextual associations. lastly, it is also, together &nbsp;with the dorsal premotor cortex, involved in visuospatial mental operations. &nbsp;While the
premotor area engages in the mental
operation, the precuneus aids monitoring the success of that operation in terms of internally represented visual images.</span></p><p><span style="font-size: 1rem;"><br></span></p>
<h2><span>BA24</span></h2>
<p></p>
<p><span style="font-size: 1rem;"></span></p>
<p>This Brodmann area occupies most of the&nbsp;anterior cingulate gyrus&nbsp;in an arc around the&nbsp;genu of the corpus callosum. Its outer border corresponds approximately to the&nbsp;cingulate sulcus.&nbsp;Broadmann area 24 is responsible for several
    types of attention, arousal and inhibition of responses, and memory (like episodic and those related to odor and taste). It is involved in learning the value of actions (performance monitoring with adjustments made by orbital frontal cortex and the
    dorso lateral pre frontal cortex, and detecting uncertainty. It play a major role in the Intention Network (9R, 47R, 20R, 38L, 24LR, 21LR, cerebellum), and verbal initiation. This region deals with mood swings, worry, self-other overlap and novelty
    seeking personality. Francis Crick&nbsp;listed area 24 as the seat of free will because of its centrality in amotivational syndromes.</p>

<p><br></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA24.png" alt="BA24" width="481" height="764" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle"></p>

<h2><a name="_Toc28940448">Anterior Cingulate Cortex</a></h2>

<p>&nbsp;<a name="_Hlk28777674">The anterior cingulate cortex is a collar of
white matter that surrounds the corpus callosum (the bundle of fibers that
connects the hemispheres of the brain. This is a major network hub of the
brain, responsible for the integration of network activity of all sorts.&nbsp; The anterior cingulate cortex is responsible
for much of our autonomic functioning, including heart rate, decision making,
empathy, impulse control and emotion. &nbsp;</a></p>

<p>Mood Disorders are often seen stemming from a dysregulation in this area and can manifest as depression, amotivational, and angry behaviors. The ACC can also be disorganized if one was predispositioned towards developmental trauma.</p>

<p>Studies on meditators of various disciplines (notably transcendental meditation) show the anterior cingulate gyrus as activated by alpha when in deep states.&nbsp; This has been linked to a surge in dopamine, in honing of attention (and expertise in attention),
    and in the ability to self-regulate easily. &nbsp;The ACC is disorganized in developmental trauma. Hyperreactivity of the anterior cingulate is also the brain signature of OCD (also in substance abuse).</p><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 1rem;">&nbsp;</span><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/ACC.jpg" alt="BA24" width="504" height="490" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle" style="font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 1rem;">&nbsp;</span></p><h2 style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Toc525053920"><br></a></h2><h2 style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Toc28940449"></a><a name="_Toc16242846"></a><a name="_Toc525053920">BA 25</a></h2>

<p style="text-align: left;">This area of the brain, Brodmann area 25, is called the subgenual area because it is “below the knee” of the corpus callosum. This area is very deep in the midline cortex and has an very important link to the affect network. It is this area that is considered
    to be of key intervention to people who have intractable depression. It is rich in serotonin transporters and is influential in many networks. This area governs personality and social behavior, such as moral reasoning and the evaluation of emotional
    words. It influences the hypothalamus and the brain stem, which are involved in sleep and appetite, as well as the hippocampus, which is essential for memory formation and self-esteem. </p>

<p></p><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 1rem;">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA25.png" alt="BA25" width="498" height="734" class="atto_image_button_middle" style="font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: 1rem;">Irregular independent components at the subgenual anterior cingulate
    affect the function of the brains’ Error Detection and Correction processes.&nbsp; This system which can be stuck in the “off position” as much as it can get stuck “on.” Usually if you are getting a lot of error codes (“that’s wrong,” “did you forget
    to lock the door,” etc.) a significant marker here could signify an obsessive compulsive or oppositional defiant disorders. The anterior midline holds a model of what is going on in the world at the Subgenual Anterior Cingulate location. When that
    spot is not working properly, you end up having error codes.</span></p><p></p>
<p style="text-align: left;"><br></p>
<p style="text-align: left;"><br></p>
<p></p>
<h2 style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Toc28940450"></a><a name="_Toc16242847"></a><a name="_Toc525053921">BA 2</a>6</h2>

<p style="text-align: left;">Brodmann area 26 is located at the isthmus of the posterior cingulate gyrus. Its role is not well defined.</p>
<p></p><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 1rem;">&nbsp; &nbsp;</span><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA26.png" alt="BA26" width="498" height="743" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle" style="font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p></p>

<h2 style="text-align: left;"><br></h2><h2 style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Toc28940451">BAs 27 &amp; 28</a> </h2>

<p style="text-align: left;">Brodmann area 27 is a &nbsp;cortical&nbsp;area that is a&nbsp;rostral&nbsp;part of the&nbsp;parahippocampal gyrus&nbsp;of the&nbsp;guenon. Brodmann areas 27, 28, 36 and 37 exist in the parahippocampal or fusiform gyrus of the ventral temporal lobe in
    humans. These regions of the brain are responsible for representing space, such as those involving head-direction cells or grid cells, in areas 27 (the parasubicular cortex) and 28 (the ventral entorhinal cortex).</p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA27.png" alt="BA27" width="400" height="606" style="text-align: left;" class="atto_image_button_left"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA28.png" alt="BA26" width="400" height="609" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_right" style="text-align: left;">
<h2></h2><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p>
<p style="text-align: center;">&nbsp;<img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA29.png" alt="BA29" width="495" height="764" style="text-align: center; " class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle"></p>
<h2 style="text-align: left;"><br></h2>
<h2></h2>
<h2 style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Toc28940452">BA 29</a></h2>
<p style="text-align: left;">Brodmann area 29 is the medial area of the cortex that is part of the paralimbic cortex, involved in semantic associations (not conscious) and novelty. It is one of the less studied areas of the brain. &nbsp;It lies between the posterior cingulate are
    the hippocampal areas and may be integral to the synthesization and integration of new information (i.e. memory).</p>
<h2 style="text-align: left;"><br></h2>
<h2 style="text-align: left;">BA 30</h2>
<p style="text-align: left;">Brodmann area 30 is the retrosplenial region and is part of the cingulate cortex and cuneus. This area is implicated in the affect, memory, and default mode network. It has a role in attending to speech, listening to sentences and understanding the emotional
    aspects of words. It has connection to limbic areas and is implicated in mood regulation. It is one of the central midline structures, is involved in the default mode network, and has a role in appraisal of one’s self (insight) (Thompson &amp; Thompson,
    2015).
</p><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 1rem;">&nbsp;</span><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA30.png" alt="BA29" width="400" height="617" style="font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle"></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p>
<p></p>

<h2 style="text-align: left;">BA 31</h2>

<p></p><p style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: 1rem;">Brodmann area 31, also known as&nbsp;dorsal posterior cingulate area 31, is a subdivision of the&nbsp;cytoarchitecturally&nbsp;defined&nbsp;cingulate region&nbsp;of the&nbsp;cerebral cortex. In the human it occupies portions of the&nbsp;posterior cingulate
    gyrus&nbsp;and medial aspect of the&nbsp;parietal lobe. The region is typically discussed as having a unitary function because of a common pattern of relative deactivation observed during attentionally demanding tasks. One influential hypothesis is
    that the posterior cingulate cortex has a central role in supporting internally-directed cognition. It is a key node in the default mode network and shows increased activity when individuals retrieve autobiographical memories or plan for the future,
    as well as during unconstrained ‘rest’ when activity in the brain is mind wandering.</span></p><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 1rem;">&nbsp;</span><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA%2031.png" alt="BA31" width="479" height="761" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle" style="font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;"></p>
<h2 style="text-align: left;">BA 32</h2>

<p style="text-align: left;">This area is also known i<span>n the&nbsp;human&nbsp;brain&nbsp;as the&nbsp;<span style="">dorsal anterior cingulate area 32</span>,&nbsp;which controls self-monitoring of current emotional or somatic states, such as the anticipation and detection of
    targets (indicating novelty), the influence of motor responses, and the cognitive control of action selection, </span>such as detecting errors when reward was expected for an action, but did not materialize.&nbsp; Involved in reward-based decision
    making and activated by active distress.</p>
<p style="text-align: center; "><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA32.png" alt="BA32" width="436" height="681" style="text-align: left;" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle"></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p></p>

<p style="text-align: left;">The ACC functions to inhibit the firing of the amygdala. It is often referred to as the transitional limbic cortex because it lies at the transition between the cortical and the subcortical regions. Joseph (1996) describes the ACC as “a supra-modal area
    that is involved in the integration of motor tactile, autonomic, and emotional stimuli, as well as in the production of emotional sounds and the capacity to experience psychological pain and misery (p.243). In some abuse cases, this area has little
    blood flow; no blood flow means little neuronal activation, which likely correlates directly to the sense of the self as a black hole—as non-existent.</p>

<h3 style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Toc28940456"></a><a name="_Toc16242850"></a><a name="_Toc525053924">Brodmann area 32L</a> controls</h3>

<p style="text-align: left;">
    <!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
    <!--[endif]-->Visual uncertainty </p>

<p style="text-align: left;">
    <!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
    <!--[endif]-->Mood regulation </p>

<p style="text-align: left;">
    <!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
    <!--[endif]-->Evaluate emotional words </p>

<h4 style="text-align: left;">
    <!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
    <!--[endif]-->Brodmann area 32 Right controls</h4>

<p style="text-align: left;">
    <!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
    <!--[endif]-->Sustain response set </p>

<p style="text-align: left;">
    <!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
    <!--[endif]-->Identify pain </p>

<p style="text-align: left;">
    <!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
    <!--[endif]-->Self-insight </p>

<p style="text-align: left;">
    <!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
    <!--[endif]-->Reward </p>

<p style="text-align: left;">
    <!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Reappraise negative emotions </p>
<p></p>
<h2 style="text-align: left;"><br></h2><h2 style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Toc28940457">BA 33</a> </h2>

<p style="text-align: left;">Brodmann area 33 is <b>part of anterior cingulate cortex</b>&nbsp;is a subdivision of the&nbsp;cytoarchitecturally&nbsp;defined&nbsp;cingulate region&nbsp;of&nbsp;cerebral cortex. It is a narrow band located in the&nbsp;anterior cingulate gyrus&nbsp;adjacent
    to thesupracallosal gyrus&nbsp;in the depth of the&nbsp;callosal sulcus, near the genu of the&nbsp;corpus callosum.</p><p style="text-align: center;">&nbsp;<img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA33.png" alt="Ba33" width="400" height="624" style="font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle"></p>
<p></p>
<p style="text-align: left;">&nbsp;</p>
<p style="text-align: left;"><br></p>

<h2 style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Toc28940458">BA 34</a></h2>

<p style="text-align: left;">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="text-align: left;">Area 34 of Brodmann&nbsp;refers to a subdivision of the cytoarchitecturally defined&nbsp;hippocampal region&nbsp;of the&nbsp;human&nbsp;cerebral cortex. It is located in the&nbsp;entorhinal area&nbsp;on the&nbsp;medial&nbsp;aspect of the&nbsp;temporal
    lobe.
</p>
<p style="text-align: center; "><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA34.png" alt="BA34" width="481" height="764" style="text-align: left;" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle"></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p></p>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">BA 35</h3><p style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: 1rem;">Brodmann area 35 is </span><b style="font-size: 1rem;">perirhinal area 35</b><span style="font-size: 1rem;">. It is a subdivision of the&nbsp;cytoarchitecturally&nbsp;defined&nbsp;hippocampal region&nbsp;of the&nbsp;cerebral cortex. In the human it is located along the&nbsp;rhinal sulcus. Cytoarchitectually
it is bounded medially by the&nbsp;entorhinal area 28&nbsp;and laterally by the&nbsp;ectorhinal area 36.</span></p><p></p>



<p style="text-align: left;">The hippocampus is responsible for synthesizing short term into long term memory, episodic memory, autonomic processes, response inhibition, and spatial cognition. Hippocampus damage can lead to anxiety disorders and an inability to suppress responses
    that have been conditioned. It also encodes emotional responses from the amygdala. Damage to the hippocampus will result in the inability to form new memories. This is also an area that is responsible for conflict detection and approach-avoidance
    behaviors, linking it to some anxiety conditions.
</p>

<p style="text-align: left;">There are two hippocampi—one for each hemisphere. Each has a different role in memory. The RH hippocampus records memory in spatial and temporal fields and the LH holds verbal memory. The RH hippocampus is central to implicit, non verbal memory—in a sense,
    unremembered memory. When RH memory begins to return, it is often in felt experiences and in pictures and in spatial contexts. The LH hippocampus is involved in declarative or explicit memory, also called semantic memory (i.e. related to words), and
    gives us the ability to used words to communicate emotional states. Sustained stress and high levels of circulating cortisol and other stress hormones (i.e. glucocorticoids) lead to a smaller hippocampus, structurally, and as a result, to impaired
    memory. “ A likely explanation is that the shrinkage in the hippocampus is due to the effects of heightened cortisol, which is known to be toxic to the hippocampus” (van der Kolk, 2007, p. 233).</p>
<p style="text-align: center; "><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA%2035.png" alt="BA 35" width="480" height="763" style="text-align: left;" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle"></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p></p>

<p style="text-align: left;">The hippocampus is responsible for synthesizing short term into long term memory, episodic memory, autonomic processes, response inhibition, and spatial cognition. Hippocampus damage can lead to anxiety disorders and an inability to suppress responses
    that have been conditioned. It also encodes emotional responses from the amygdala. Damage to the hippocampus will result in the inability to form new memories. This is also an area that is responsible for conflict detection and approach-avoidance
    behaviors, linking it to some anxiety conditions. The flow of information in the hippocampus is mostly unidirectional, or so called feed forward&nbsp; (Buszaki. 70).</p>

<h2 style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Toc28940460"></a><a name="_Toc16242851"></a><a name="_Toc525053925">BA 36 &amp; 37</a></h2>
<p style="text-align: center; "><a name="_Toc525053925"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Ba36.png" alt="BA36" width="480" height="727" style="text-align: left;" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle"></a></p><p style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Toc525053925"><br></a></p><p></p>

<p style="text-align: left;">Ectorhinal area 36 is a subdivision of the cytoarchitecturally defined temporal region of cerebral cortex. With its medial boundary corresponding approximately to the rhinal sulcus it is located primarily in the fusiform gyrus, which is responsible for
    the recognition of faces. Cytoarchitecturally it is bounded laterally and caudally by the inferior temporal area 20, medially by the perirhinal area 35 and rostrally by the temporopolar area 38</p>

<p style="text-align: left;">Area 36 (the lateral perirhinal cortex) is crucial for various types of associative learning. Earlier human neuroimaging studies have also indicated that faces, bodies and visual word forms are represented in different regions of area 37 in the posterior
    fusiform gyrus. Recent neuroimaging studies in humans have shown substantial functional differentiation between face-related regions in areas 37 and 36, which is similar to that seen in macaque monkeys, as shown through their face patches. This implies
    the crucial involvement of both areas in face processing. </p><p style="text-align: center;"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA37.png" alt="BA37" width="400" height="625" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom" style="font-size: 1rem;"></p>
<p></p>
<p></p>

<h2 style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Toc28940462">BA38</a></h2>

<p style="text-align: left;">BA 38 is part of the temporal cortex. The temporal pole is a paralimbic region involved in high level semantic representation and socio-emotional processing. The&nbsp;uncinate fasciculus&nbsp;provides a direct bidirectional path to the orbitofrontal cortex,
    allowing mnemonic representations stored in the temporal pole to bias decision making in the frontal lobe. The temporal pole appears to be a convergence zone where semantic memories that are stored in the ventral anterior temporal lobe are imbued
    with emotional significance and personal meaning.&nbsp; In addition, concepts of individual people, abstracted away from the perceptual representations, are stored in a “face patch” in the temporal pole. This face patch is found in both non-human
    primates and humans.&nbsp;&nbsp;This relates to early work showing that damage to the temporal pole can cause an amnestic prosopanosia in which knowledge of familiar people is lost.&nbsp; Bilateral damage to the temporal poles, though rare, can cause
    dramatic changes in personality.&nbsp;Kluver-Bucy syndrome&nbsp;involves damage to the greater temporal pole as well as the&nbsp;amygdala. In this disorder, individuals demonstrate fearlessness, hyper sexuality, and hyper orality.</p>

<p></p><p style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: 10.5px; vertical-align: super;">&nbsp;</span></p><sup><p style="text-align: center;"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA38.png" alt="BA38" width="500" height="787" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle" style="vertical-align: super;"></p></sup><p></p>
<h2 style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Toc28940463">BA 39</a></h2>

<p style="text-align: left;">BA39 encompasses the&nbsp;angular gyrus, lying near to the junction of&nbsp;temporal,&nbsp;occipital&nbsp;and&nbsp;parietal lobes. This region is thought to have correlation with the visual representation of words and phonemes, damage to Brodmann area
    39 may result in dyslexia&nbsp;or in semantic&nbsp;aphasia.&nbsp;Albert Einstein&nbsp;had more glia in this region than the normal person and it has been hypothesized this is why he had remarkable mathematical genius.</p>
<p></p>
<h2 style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Toc28940464">BA 40</a> </h2>

<p style="text-align: left;">Brodmann area 40 is located the inferior parietal lobule. This region of the brain is responsible for: attention to phonemes, categorization, verbal creativity, aversiveness, emotional working memory, conscious recollection, visual grasping, gesture imitation,
    visuomotor planning, intention/conflict detection, deduction, empathy, and goals.</p>
<p style="text-align: center;">&nbsp;<img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA40.png" alt="BA40" width="480" height="720" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom"><br></p>

<p style="text-align: left;">Brodmann area 40 is responsible for attendance to calculation, phonemes, categorization, verbal creativity, aversiveness, emotional working memory, conscious recollection, visual grasping, gesture imitation, visuomotor planning, Repetitive passive movements,
    intention/conflict detection, deduction, empathy , music performance, goals, imitation of novel actions.</p>
<h2 style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Toc28940465"></a><br></h2>
<p style="text-align: center; "><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/ba41.png" alt="ba41" width="480" height="743" style="text-align: left;" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle"></p>
<h2 style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Toc525053928">BA 41, 42</a></h2>
<p style="text-align: left;">Brodmann areas 41, and 42 are all parts of the auditory cortex. In extreme cases, damage here will show loss in the conscious awareness of sound, 41 and 42 are areas that comprise Herschel’s gyrus, an area that is known for picking up and recognizing
    the paralinguistics of speech (including prosody, tone, gait, tenor, timbre, tempo, volume, and patterns). This area is responsible for how we decode what the other is saying. Herschl’s gyrus and has a direct corollary to the densely packed cochlear
    nucleus, which is responsible for the processing of sounds. In this region of the brain words and sounds are decoded through the heteromodal association cortex and are given meaning through the angular gyrus, where they are then related to other words
    and meanings encountered in the past.</p><p style="text-align: center;"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/ba42.png" alt="ba41" width="487" height="784" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom" style="font-size: 1rem;"></p>
<p></p>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">BA 43</h3>

<p style="text-align: left;">Brodmann Area 43 responds to pressure on the eardrum &nbsp;and to oral intake (eating and drinking). Because eating and drinking change pressure on the middle ear and eardrum, Brodmann Area 43 may be the primary somatosensory cortex of the eardrum.</p>

<p style="text-align: left;">Additionally, Brodmann Area 43 was found to be functionally active in a study differentiating the roles of the left-frontal and right-cerebellar regions during semantic analysis. Brodmann Area 43 showed a major increase in functional activation by fMRI,
    when study participants &nbsp;were asked to complete tasks which involved the selection of a verbal response from many possible responses, rather than a sustained search for a verbal response from few possible responses.
</p>
<p style="text-align: center;">&nbsp;<img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/ba43.png" alt="bA43" width="500" height="764" style="text-align: center; " class="atto_image_button_middle"></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><h3 style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Toc28940468"><br></a></h3><h3 style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Toc28940468">BA 44 and 45</a></h3>

<p style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Hlk26903308">Brodmann
areas 44 and 45 are the pars opercularis and the pars triangularis, respectively.
These areas are part of Broca’s area and cover the insula. Broca’s area was
discovered in a patient who was unable to produce speech. This area is
importance for semantics, phonetics, as well as verbal understanding, speech
articulation, grammatical processing, and speech fluency. Boiled down, this is
the area that enables us to speak. When compromised, we may see difficulty
producing speech, stuttering, and other symptoms of difficulty producing words.
This area is also important for internal speech and the internal rehearsal of
information. </a></p>



<p style="text-align: left;">The pars traingularis (Brodmann area 45) is important in memory networks, particularly episodic, syntactic, semantic, and declarative memory encoding. When reading aloud, this area allows for the decoding and correct pronunciation of speech&nbsp; (Thompson
    &amp; Thompson, 2015, p. 51-52).</p><p style="text-align: center; "><br></p><p style="text-align: center; "><br></p><p style="text-align: center;"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA%2044%20and%2045.png" alt="BA 44 " width="538" height="700" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom"></p><p style="text-align: center;"><br></p>
<p></p>
<h2 style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Toc28940469"></a><a name="_Toc16242856"></a><a name="_Toc525053930">BA 46</a></h2>

<p style="text-align: left;">Brodmannn area 46 is intimately connected to areas 8 and 9, all the executive regions of the brain.&nbsp; These are the areas of the prefrontal dorsolateral cortex, which are implicated in making judgments, planning, monitoring, revising, sustaining attention,
    working memory, inhibition of responses, willed actions and verbal and episodic memory retrieval.&nbsp; Mirror neurons are located here. Spatial information is also processed here (Thompson &amp; Thompson, 2015).</p>

<p style="text-align: center; ">&nbsp;<img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA46.png" alt="BA46" width="480" height="753" style="text-align: center; " class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle"></p>
<p style="text-align: center; "><br></p>
<p style="text-align: center; "><br></p>
<p style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Toc525053931" style="color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 2.143rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">BA 47</a><br></p>

<p style="text-align: left;">Brodmann area 47 is part of the frontal cortex that curves from the lateral surface of the brain to into the orbital frontal cortex. This area is implicated in deductive reasoning, language and emotions. It is located in the pre-frontal cortex near Brodmann
    areas 9 and 10, parallel to Brodmann area 11.&nbsp; This area is part of the executive network and is important in processing syntax and semantics of language (oral and sign language) categorization and aspects of language and speech. It is also important
    for episodic and working memory. It is one of the key areas for deductive reasoning and is important in making inferences, as well as monitoring actions and incoming information and behavior. Lastly, it is important in the temporal coherence of processing
    music (Thompson &amp; Thompson, 2015, p. 54).
    </p><p style="text-align: center;"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA47.png" alt="BA47" width="400" height="603" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle" style="font-size: 1rem;"></p>
<p></p><p style="text-align: center;"><br></p>
<p></p>