(343,72,342,344,20,0,1,1,1587460309,1587460586,'WinEEG','<p>WinEEG Advanced software allows for the recording, editing and analysis of continuously recorded EEG using a Mitsar amplifier and will also process data recorded in other formats. Raw EEG can be exported to files with different formats such as ASCII, Binary, EDF, EDF+, UDF, ASCII, LEXICOR, and NeuroScan v.4.EEG spectra, coherence, ERP, ERD and parameters of task performance can be exported to ASCII file automatically for collection of recordings selected by user.</p><p>The EEG (up to 32 channels) is stored on the hard disk and available for subsequent analysis. During recording, the signals are continuously displayed on the screen. The software emulates the “moving” paper mode. EEG can be recorded synchronously with visual and acoustic stimuli presentation for ERP/ERD studies. An automatic impedance measurement built into the program helps to control a quality of electrodes setting.</p><p>Recorded EEG can be displayed in different montages: monopolar, bipolar, average reference, weighted average reference and etc. EEG can be filtered by IIR digital filters to change frequency band of recording to and eliminate environmental noise (50 or 60 Hz).&nbsp;</p><p>WinEEG allows for epoch selection and rejection for the cleaning of artifacts, as well as Advanced artifact correction procedures based on PCA or ICA decomposition of raw EEG and spatial filtering.</p><p>WinEEG software includes the multichannel spectral analysis, brain mapping and coherence. Power spectra and coherence can be computed for any selected part of recorded EEG. Different parameters of spectra computed for predefined frequency band ranges can be displayed as histograms, maps and tables. .</p><p>Build in equivalent dipole localization algorithm help to identify a brain position of source of paroxysmal activity and 3D mapping of data can be performed by LORETA software to which mapped data is transferred automatically.</p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/wineeg-software.png\" alt=\"Figure #1: Image from WinEEG Software\" width=\"1048\" height=\"588\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\">Figure #1: Image from WinEEG Software<br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/wineeg-software-2.png\" alt=\"Figure #2: Image from WinEEG Software\" width=\"426\" height=\"336\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\">Figure #2: Image from WinEEG Software<br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/wineeg-software-3.png\" alt=\"Figure #3: Image from WinEEG Software\" width=\"1094\" height=\"616\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\">Figure #3: Image from WinEEG Software<br></p>',1),(344,72,343,345,20,0,1,1,1587460596,1587460630,'Human Brain Institute Database ','<p>The HBI database was developed by Juri Kropotov to help researchers record and analyze raw EEG, quantitative EEG and quantitative ERPs studies. The HBI database is built in WinEEG software.</p><p>The HBI database includes the data from over 3000 EEG recordings collected from more than 1000 healthy subjects from ages 7 to 89 years old. EEGs were recorded at seven different conditions: Eye Opened, Eye Closed tasks and during performing 5 different tasks using for ERP analysis such as Visual Continuous Performance Task (VCPT), Auditory Task, Reading Task, Mathematical Task and Mismatch Negativity Task.</p>',1),(345,72,344,346,20,0,1,1,1587460634,1587460886,'ERPs','<p>In Event Related Potentials analysis, brain responses (i.e. evoked potentials) to psychological tasks are decomposed into independent components. The components are associated with distinctive psychological operations. Comparing the amplitude and latency of the components with the normative data gives insights into the different stages of information processing in patients.<br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/visual-event-hbi.png\" alt=\"Figure #1: Pictures for a Visual Event Related Potentials Test in HBI\" width=\"450\" height=\"357\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\">Figure #1: Pictures for a Visual Event Related Potentials Test in HBI<br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/hbi-database.png\" alt=\"Figure #2: Pictures for a Visual Event Related Potentials Test in HBI\" width=\"595\" height=\"527\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\">Figure #2: Pictures for a Visual Event Related Potentials Test in HBI<br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\">The HBI database includes the average spectra, average coherence, average event related potentials (ERPs) and their variance computed for three different referents: linked ears referent, average referent and weighted average referent.<br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/hbi-database-2.png\" alt=\"Figure #3: Image from HBI Database\" width=\"443\" height=\"496\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\">Figure #3: Image from HBI Database<br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><br></p>',1),(346,72,345,0,20,0,1,1,1587460893,1587461154,'BrainDx','<p>BrainDx was formed by internationally recognized Neurophysiological researchers and clinicians via research conducted at the Brain Research Laboratories of New York University School of Medicine.&nbsp;</p><p>BrainDx is a modular system that allows evaluation of brain function on many levels of analysis which can assist in the classification of an individual in terms of psychiatric disorders and neurological conditions. BrainDx is an annual subscription that expires one year from purchase and needs to be renewed.</p><p>BrainDx uses 3-D source localization methods, the mathematically most probable underlying sources of the scalp recorded data can be identified, and produces an interpretive report that can be used by clinicians to document neurofunctional status related to an individual\'s behavior and performance capacities.</p><p>Part of the report generation process includes comparing the results of a patient\'s brain functional profile to a database of age matched normal individuals. Then, incorporating information from the patient\'s history, statistical comparisons are made to the appropriate clinical databases comparing the QEEG profile of the individual patient to those with known disorders, assessing the probability that the patient statistically resembled such patients, and thereby assisting the diagnostic process.&nbsp;</p><p>For example, if a patient presents with general complaints about memory loss or says that their work is not going well, the BrainDx system can objectively evaluate their brain function relative to age expected normal values, and suggest the statistical probability that the EEG profile seen in this patient is consistent with that of a patient with dementia, rather than a patient with clinical depression.&nbsp;</p><p>A non-invasive, 20-30 minute QEEG brain evaluation can generate with statistical accuracy the probability that a patient with particular symptoms matches others in the database with similar symptoms and an objective diagnosis. For example, in the case of pediatric concerns, differentiate Learning Disorder (LD) from Normal or Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) from Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). ,etc. In addition BrainDx provides the ability to evaluate brain function,when the patient is in two different states; a quantitative assessment of the change in brain function between the two states, for example, on and off a medication.</p><p>The BDx Report generator software produces an interpretive report based upon Neurometric Analysis as well as sLORETA analysis. This tool for quantitative electroencephalography (qEEG ) is a software-based, healthcare technology that purports to facilitate the diagnosis and treatment monitoring of a number of psychiatric, developmental, and neurological brain disorders.</p><p>BrainDx accepts raw 19 channel EEG data from most major manufacturers. It has automatic artifact rejection, allows for various montages, and creates maps for all age ranges.&nbsp; The metrics of analysis include Absolute Power, Relative Power, Phase, Asymmetry, Coherence and Frequency.</p><p>It also has a unique 3D, rotational volumetric visualization of the brain as mapped from the qEEG interpretation through the high resolution z-score sLORETA algorithm.</p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/braindx-loreta.png\" alt=\"Figure #4: BrainDx LORETA Imaging\" width=\"748\" height=\"573\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\">Figure #4: BrainDx LORETA Imaging<br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/braindx-raw.png\" alt=\"Figure #5: An Image of Raw Data in BrainDx\" width=\"896\" height=\"682\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\">Figure #5: An Image of Raw Data in BrainDx<br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/braindx-summary.png\" alt=\"Figure #7: Image of Summary Page from BrainDx\" width=\"851\" height=\"602\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\">Figure #7: Image of Summary Page from BrainDx<br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/braindx-summary-2.png\" alt=\"Figure #8: Image from BrainDx\" width=\"1021\" height=\"733\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\">Figure #8: Image from BrainDx<br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><br></p>',1),(347,73,0,0,20,0,1,1,1587461426,0,'Detail','<p>Adey, W.R., Walter, D.O. and Hendrix, C.E. (1961). Computer techniques in correlation and spectral analyses of cerebral slow waves during discriminative behavior.Exp Neurol., 3:501-524&nbsp;</p><p>Adey, W.R. (1964a). Data acquisition and analysis techniques in a Brain Research Institute. Ann N Y Acad Sci., 31;115:844-866.&nbsp;</p><p>Adey, W.R. (1964b). Biological instrumentation, electrophysiological recording and analytic techniques. Physiologist., 72:65-68.</p><p>Duffy, F., Hughes, J. R., Miranda, F., Bernad, P. &amp; Cook, P. (1994). Status of quantitative EEG (QEEG) in clinical practice. Clinical. Electroencephalography, 25 (4), VI - XXII.</p><p>John, E.R. Functional Neuroscience, Vol. II: Neurometrics: Quantitative Electrophysiological Analyses. E.R. John and R.W. Thatcher, Editors. L. Erlbaum Assoc., N.J., l977.</p><p>&nbsp;John, E.R. Karmel, B., Corning, W. Easton, P., Brown, D., Ahn, H., John, M., Harmony, T., Prichep, L., Toro, A., Gerson, I., Bartlett, F., Thatcher, R., Kaye, H., Valdes, P., Schwartz, E. (1977). Neurometrics: Numerical taxonomy identifies different profiles of brain functions within groups of behaviorally similar people. Science, l96, :1393-1410.&nbsp;</p><p>John, E. R., Prichep, L. S. &amp; Easton, P. (1987). Normative data banks and neurometrics: Basic concepts, methods and results of norm construction. In A. Remond (Ed.), Handbook of electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology: Vol. III. Computer analysis of the EEG and other neurophysiological signals (pp. 449- 495). Amsterdam: Elsevier.&nbsp;</p><p>John, E.R., Ahn, H., Prichep, L.S., Trepetin, M., Brown, D. and Kaye, H. (1980) Developmental equations for the electroencephalogram. Science, 210: 1255– 1258.&nbsp;</p><p>John, E. R., Prichep, L. S., Fridman, J. &amp; Easton, P. (1988). Neurometrics: Computer assisted differential diagnosis of brain dysfunctions. Science, 293, 162-169.&nbsp;</p><p>John, E.R. (1990). Machinery of the Mind: Data, theory, and speculations about higher brain function. Birkhauser, Boston.</p><p>Matousek, M. &amp; Petersen, I. (1973a). Automatic evaluation of background activity by means of agee-dependent EEG quotients. EEG &amp; Clin. Neurophysiol., 35: 603- 612.&nbsp;</p><p>Matousek, M. &amp; Petersen, I. (1973b). Frequency analysis of the EEG background activity by means of age dependent EEG quotients. In P. Kellaway &amp; I. Petersen (Eds.), Automation of clinical electroencephalography (pp. 75-102). New York: Raven Press.</p><p>Thatcher, R. W. &amp; Lubar, J. (2008) History of the Scientific Standards of QEEG Databases. “Introduction to QEEG and Neurofeedback: Advanced Theory and Applications” Thomas Budzinsky, H. Budzinski, J. Evans and A. Abarbanel editors, Academic Press, San Diego, CA.</p><p>Thatcher, R.W., Krause, P and Hrybyk, M. (1986). Corticocortical Association Fibers and EEG Coherence: A Two Compartmental Model. Electroencephalog. Clinical Neurophysiol., 64: 123 - 143.&nbsp;</p><p>Thatcher, R.W. Tomographic EEG/MEG. (1995). Journal of Neuroimaging, 5, 35-45. Thatcher, R., Wang, B., Toro, C. and Hallett, M. (1994). Human Neural Network Dynamics Using Multimodal Registration of EEG, PET and MRI. In: R. Thatcher, M. Hallett, T. Zeffiro, E. John and M. Huerta (Eds.), Functional Neuroimaging: Technical Foundations, Academic Press: New York.&nbsp;</p><p>Thatcher, R.W., Biver, C. J., and North, D. (2007). Spatial-temporal current source correlations and cortical connectivity, Clin. EEG and Neuroscience, 38(1): 35 – 48.&nbsp;</p><p>Thatcher, R.W. and Collura, T.F. (2006). Z-Score EEG Biofeedback. Int. Soc. for Neuronal Regulation, Atlanta, GA, Sept. 2006.&nbsp;</p><p>Thatcher, R. W., Biver, C., McAlaster, R &amp; Salazar, A. M. (1998a). Biophysical linkage between MRI and EEG coherence in traumatic brain injury. NeuroImage, 8 (4), 307-326.&nbsp;</p><p>Thatcher, R. W., Biver, C., Camacho, M., McAlaster, R. &amp; Salazar, A. M. (1998b). Biophysical linkage between MRI and EEG amplitude in traumatic brain injury. NeuroImage, 7, 352-367.&nbsp;</p><p>Thatcher, R.W., North, D., and Biver, C. (2005c). EEG and Intelligence: Univariate and Multivariate Comparisons Between EEG Coherence, EEG Phase Delay and Power. Clinical Neurophysiology, 116(9):2129-2141.&nbsp;</p><p>Thatcher, R.W. and John, E.R. (1977). Functional Neuroscience, Vol. 1: Foundations of Cognitive Processes, E.R. John and R.W.&nbsp;</p><p>Thatcher, Editors. L. Erlbaum Assoc., N.J. Thompson, J., Sebastianelli, W., Slobounov, S. (2005). EEG and postural correlates of mild traumatic brain injury in athletes. Neuroscience Letters, 4 377(3), 158-163.</p><p>&nbsp;Thatcher, R.W., Cantor, D.S., McAlaster, R., Geisler, F. and Krause, P. Comprehensive predictions of outcome in closed head injury: The development of prognostic equations. (1991). Annals New York Academy of Sciences, 620: 82-104. 36&nbsp;</p><p>Thatcher, R.W., Walker, R.A., Gerson, I. and Geisler, F. (1989). EEG discriminant analyses of mild head trauma. EEG and Clin. Neurophysiol., 73: 93-106.&nbsp;</p><p>Thatcher, R.W., North, D., Curtin, R., Walker, R.A., Biver, C., J.F. Gomez M., and Salazar, A. (2001a). An EEG Severity Index of Traumatic Brain Injury, J. Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 13(1): 77-87&nbsp;</p><p>Thatcher, R.W., Camacho, M., Salazar, A., Linden, C., Biver, C. and Clarke, L. (1997). Quantitative MRI of the gray-white matter distribution in traumatic brain injury. J. Neurotrauma, 14: 1-14. .&nbsp;</p><p>Thatcher R.W., Biver, C.L., Gomez-Molina J.F., North, D., Curtin, R. and Walker, R.W., and Salazar, A. (2001b). Estimation of the EEG Power Spectrum by MRI T2 Relaxation Time in Traumatic Brain Injury. Clinical Neurophysiology, 112: 1729-1745.&nbsp;</p><p>Thatcher, R.W., North, D., and Biver, C. (2007b). Self-organized criticality and the development of EEG phase reset. Human Brain Mapping (In press, 2007).</p><p>Ahn, H., Prichep, L. S., John, E. R., Baird, H., Trepetin, M. &amp; Kaye, H. (1980). Developmental equations reflect brain dysfunctions. Science, 210, 1259-1261.&nbsp;</p><p>Chicurel, M. (2000). Databasing the Brain. Nature, 406, 822-825.&nbsp;</p><p>Donchin, E. (1987). The P300 as a metric for mental workload. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 39 (Suppl.), 338-343.&nbsp;</p><p>Duffy, F. H., Burchfiel, J. L., &amp; Lombroso, C. T. (1979). Brain electrical activity mapping (BEAM): A method for extending the clinical utility of EEG and evoked potential data. Annals of Neurology, 5 (4), 309-321.&nbsp;</p><p>Duffy, F. H., Hughes, J. R, Miranda, F., Bernad, P., &amp; Cook, P. (1994). Status of quantitative EEG (QEEG) in clinical practice. Clinical Electroencephalography, 25 (4),VI-XXII.&nbsp;</p><p>Fein, G., Raz, J., Brown F. F., &amp; Merrin, E. L. (1988). Common reference coherence data are confounded by power and phase effects. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 69 (6), 581-584.&nbsp;</p><p>Gunkelman, J. 2000. Hjorth referencing in QEEG, Journal of Neurotherapy, 4 (1), 57-62.&nbsp;</p><p>Hammond, D.C. &amp; Gunkelman, J. 2001. The art of artifacting. Salt Lake City, Utah: Society for Neuronal Regulation (see www.snr-jnt.org).&nbsp;</p><p>Hudspeth, W. 2002. Prototype for database-free qEEG. (2002, September). Presentation at the annual meeting of the Society for Neuronal Regulation, Scottsdale, AZ.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p><p>John, E. R., Karmel, B. Z., Corning, W. C., Easton, P., Brown, D., Ahn, H., et al. 1977. Neurometrics: numerical taxonomy identifies different profiles of brain functions within groups of behaviorally similar people. Science, 196, 1393- 1410.&nbsp;</p><p>John, E. R., Prichep, L., Ahn, H., Easton, P., Fridman, J., &amp; Kaye, H. (1983). Neurometric evaluation of cognitive dysfunctions and neurological disorders in children. Progress in Neurobiology, 21 (4), 239- 290.&nbsp;</p><p>John, E. R., Prichep, L. S., &amp; Easton, P. (1987). Normative data banks and Neurometrics. Basic concepts, methods, results of norm construction. In A. S. Gevins &amp; A. Remond (Eds.), Methods of analysis of brain electrical and magnetic signals (pp. 449-495). Amsterdam: Elsevier.&nbsp;</p><p>Johnstone, J. (2002). Bispectral analysis of the EEG: A brief technical note. Journal of Neurotherapy, 6 (3), 77-81.&nbsp;</p><p>Lorensen, T. &amp; Dickson, P. (2002) Quantitative EEG normative databases: A comparative investigation [Abstract]. Journal of Neurotherapy 6 (1), 89-90.&nbsp;</p><p>Misulis, K. E. &amp; Fakhoury, T. (2001). Spehlmann’s evoked potential primer (3rd ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier (Butterworth-Heinemann).&nbsp;</p><p>Niedermeyer, E. &amp; Lopes Da Silva, F. (Eds.). (1999). Electroencephalography: Basic principles, clinical applications, and related fi elds (4th ed.). Baltimore: Lippincott, Williams &amp; Wilkins.&nbsp;</p><p>Pfurtscheller, G., Maresch, H., &amp; Schuy, S. (1985). ERD (event-related desynchronization) mapping: A new procedure for functional brain diagnosis. Biomed Tech (Berl), 30 (1-2), 2-6.&nbsp;</p><p>Rennie C. J., Wright, J. J., &amp; Robinson P. A. (2000). Mechanisms of cortical electrical activation and emergence of gamma rhythm. Journal of Theoretical Biology 205(1),17-35.&nbsp;</p><p>Scherg, M., Ille, N., Bornfleth, H., &amp; Berg, P.(2002). Advanced tools for digital EEG review: Virtual source montages, whole-head mapping, correlation, and phase analysis. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology, 19 (2), 91-112.&nbsp;</p><p>Sigl J. C. &amp; Chamoun N. C. (1994). An introduction to bispectral analysis for the EEG. Journal of Clinical Monitoring, 10, 392-404.&nbsp;</p><p>Sterman, M. B. &amp; Kaiser, D. (2001). Comodulation: A new qEEG analysis metric for assessment of structural and functional disorders of the central nervous system. Journal of Neurotherapy, 4 (3), 73-83.&nbsp;</p><p>Suffin, S. C. &amp; Emory, W. H. (1995). Neurometric subgroups in attentional and affective disorders and their association with pharmacotherapeutic outcome. Clinical Electroencephalography, 26, 76-83.&nbsp;</p><p>Thatcher, R. W. (1998). EEG normative databases and EEG biofeedback. Journal of Neurotherapy, 2 (4), 8–39.&nbsp;</p><p>Tyner, F. &amp; Knott, J.(1983). Fundamentals of EEG technology (Vol. 1). New York: Raven Press.</p>',1),(348,75,0,0,20,0,1,1,1588613308,1615420396,'The Neo Mammilian Brain: The Cortex','<p></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/cortex2.png\" alt=\"cortex\" width=\"477\" height=\"348\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"><br></p><p>The cortex is\r\nthe neomammalian brain, which is the grey matter. The cortex is the bark of the\r\nbrain, “cortex” literally translating to bark in Latin. This part of the brain\r\ncontinues to develop and mature into the third decade of life, creating our\r\nlearned social-emotional behaviors, and emotions. Higher-level primates\r\n(including humans) oscillate at faster frequencies here. This layer of the\r\nbrain is responsible for all conscious thought, learning, and self-awareness. Approximately 40,000 years ago, with the Cro-Magnon man, both\r\nhemispheres of the brain underwent a major functional reorganization. It was at\r\nthis time that the frontal lobes increased in size, bonding processes (sexual\r\nand social) became more complex, and the ability to communicate and express\r\nideas began to emerge, notably in drawings, etchings, carvings, and sculpture. It is this third layer of the cortex that allows for\r\nself-conscious awareness, among other qualities.</p><p></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/cortex.jpg\" alt=\"cortex\" width=\"500\" height=\"307\" class=\"atto_image_button_middle\" style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p></p>\r\n\r\n<p><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/evolution.png\" alt=\"evolution\" width=\"663\" height=\"391\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"><br></p><p>In a cortical organization, neurons are arranged in layers and the neurons in each layer are functionally alike and different from those in other layers. The crinkled sheet of nerve cells (grey matter) that is the cortex is 1/5” thick.&nbsp; This is the house of the highest level of neural processing (e.g. language, memory, cognitive functioning). The cerebral cortex can be divided into areas concerned with particular functions. What lies underneath the cortex is considered white matter.<br></p>\r\n\r\n<p>Cortical\r\ninterneurons make up 1/5 of the cortical neuronal population (65) and release\r\nthe inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid). Although they\r\nare outnumbered, interneurons innervate principle neurons at strategic places\r\nand with synaptic terminals, which allows for Inhibitory Post Synaptic\r\nPotentials (IPSPs)&nbsp; to approximately\r\nmatch the effects of excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs). It is through\r\nthis dance that the balance of cortical activity is established.</p><p>There are six layers of pyramidal cells, as seen here:</p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/pyramidal%20cells.jpg\" alt=\"P cells\" width=\"700\" height=\"698\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"><br></p>\r\n\r\n<p>Brain systems\r\nwith “simple” computational demands evolved only a few neuron types. The\r\nthalamus, basal ganglia, and cerebellum possess a low degree of variability in\r\ntheir neuron types. In contrast, cortical structures have evolved not only five\r\nprinciple-cell types, but also numerous classes of GABAergic inhibitory neurons\r\n(Buszaki, 2006).</p><p>MacLean\r\nnoted the unconscious reptilian and limbic brain regions influence the higher-ordered neomammalian brain. The cortex consists of “bumps,” called gyri (“gyrus”\r\nis singular) and “grooves” called sulci (“sulcus” is singular). Some anatomists\r\ncall the deepest sulci “fissures” (Catani &amp; Thiebaut de Schotten, 2012, p.\r\n8).<br></p><p><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Gyrus.png\" alt=\"Gyrus\" width=\"477\" height=\"302\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></p><p><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/sulcus.png\" alt=\"sucus\" width=\"499\" height=\"183\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"><br></p><p><br></p>\r\n\r\n<h3>&nbsp;See here a map of all the major gyri and sulci in the brain.</h3><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/cortex.png\" alt=\"cortex\" width=\"700\" height=\"488\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"><br></p><p><br></p><p>The Longitudinal fissure is the long sulcus that divides the left\r\nand right hemispheres of the brain. </p>\r\n\r\n<h3><a name=\"_Toc28940397\">Right hemisphere and Left\r\nHemisphere</a></h3>\r\n\r\n<p>There are\r\ndifferences between the functionality of the right and the left hemispheres of\r\nthe brain.&nbsp; The right hemisphere of the\r\nbrain is unique in that it is <b><i>not</i></b> temporally associated (unlike\r\nthe left hemisphere, which uses the precedent of the past to project into the\r\nfuture in anticipation). Whereas the left hemisphere is the side of our brain\r\nthat speaks, read, writes, calculates, and takes care of numbers and facts (and\r\nsome more specific responsibilities, such as making metaphors, lexical ability,\r\nself-reflection, self-appraisal, and inferences during reading), the right-hand\r\nside plays the role of assimilating all of this information. The right-hand\r\nside of the brain does not distinguish where I end and you begin, nay, it is an\r\nassociational hemisphere that is more concerned with making meaning of all the\r\ncomponent parts. It is the part of the brain that creates and draw similarity.\r\nIt is the part of the brain that recognizes the connectivity of things, events,\r\nand people. allows for us to connect with others, to understand the\r\nconnectivity of things, to comprehend situations and data in a sensory way,\r\neven in a psi-phenomenological way.</p><p>The Sulci that divides the hemispheres of the brain is called the Longitudinal Fissure</p><h3>Longitudinal Fissure that Divides the\r\nHemispheres</h3><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Longitudinal%20Fissure.png\" alt=\"Longitudinal Fissure\" width=\"448\" height=\"488\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></p><p></p><p>The central sulcus (aka Rolandic Fissure) is the transverse sulci\r\nthat separates the frontal lobes from the parietal lobes, as well as the\r\nsensory-motor strip into the motor cortex and the somatosensory cortex. </p><p></p><h4><a name=\"_Toc28940399\"><span>Central\r\nSulcus, aka Rolandic Fissure</span></a></h4><p></p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Rolandic%20Sulcus.png\" alt=\"Rolandic Sulcus 1\" width=\"199\" height=\"127\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br><p></p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/rolandic%203.png\" alt=\"rolandic 3\" width=\"319\" height=\"318\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></p><h3>The Sylvian Fissure</h3><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Sylvian%20Fissure.png\" alt=\"Sylvian Fissure\" width=\"600\" height=\"436\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \">The sylvian fissure is the meeting of the temporal nd the frontal lobes of the brain, which opens up into a pocket of cortical tissue called the insula.</p><br><p></p>',1),(349,74,0,0,20,0,1,1,1588619495,1615348844,'Part 1: Fundamentals of Neuroanatomy','<p></p><h2><a>The Central Nervous System (CNS)</a></h2><p>The central nervous system includes the brain (contained within the skull), which weighs 1.3–1.4 kg in humans, and also the spinal cord, which extends into the vertebral canal. The brain is grossly divided into the brainstem, cerebellum, and cerebrum. The cerebrum is further divided into the basal ganglia, limbic system, and neocortex.</p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/CNS.jpg\" alt=\"Central Nervous System\" width=\"424\" height=\"839\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><p></p><p></p><p><br></p><h2><a><br></a></h2><h2><a><br></a></h2><h2><a><br></a></h2><h2><a><br></a></h2><h2><a><br></a></h2><h2><a><br></a></h2><h2><a><br></a></h2><h2><a><br></a></h2><h2><a><br></a></h2><h2><a><br></a></h2><h2><a><br></a></h2><h2><a><br></a></h2><h2><a><br></a></h2><h2><a><br></a></h2><h2><a><br></a></h2><h2><a></a><a>Spinal cord</a></h2><p>The spinal cord descends from the brainstem down through the shielded tunnel of the vertebrae,&nbsp; and transmits information from the body to the brain and from the brain to the body. Thus, the central nervous system is composed of nerves the are rooted to both the surface of the brain, as well as to the spinal cord. Most nerves are peripheral nerves, which extend and branch toward the surface of the body.</p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Spinal%20Cord.jpg\" alt=\"Spinal Cord Anatomy\" width=\"600\" height=\"760\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><p></p><p><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><i><br></i></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><i><br></i></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><i><br></i></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><i><br></i></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><i><br></i></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><i><br></i></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><i><br></i></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><i><br></i></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><i><br></i></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><i><br></i></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><i><br></i></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><i><br></i></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><i><br></i></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><i><br></i></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><i><br></i></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><i><br></i></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><i><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Peripheral%20Nervous%20System.jpg\" alt=\"Peripheral Nervous System\" width=\"723\" height=\"917\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></i></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><i><br></i></p><div><p>The brain grows, layer upon layer, like an onion. Brain cells generating grab onto a guidewire, which is a glial fiber, a glial highway, with the nucleus in the back. No other kind&nbsp;<span>of cell has to do this.&nbsp;</span></p><p><span>Neurons travel in waves, which scientists call <b>migration</b>. &nbsp;In terms of the distances relative to their size, they are making an odyssey, without mistakes telling them where to go in the brain.</span></p><p><span><br></span></p><p><span><br></span></p><p><span><br></span></p><p><span><br></span></p><p><span><br></span></p><p><span><br></span></p><p><span><br></span></p><p><span><br></span></p><p><span><br></span></p><p><span><br></span></p><p><span><br></span></p><p><span><br></span></p><p><span><br></span></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p>Here is a cool video made by the Pasterkamp lab, outlining the signaling events and molecular mechanisms involved in the formation of neuronal connections during development.<br></p><p>&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZWACm6BkDVo&amp;t=2s\">Pasterkamp Labs</a><br></p><p>&nbsp;</p><h2>The Triune Brain Theory</h2><br><p></p><p></p><p>The triune brain was first described by Maclean in 1990, as consisting of three layers that depict our evolution individually as a species. &nbsp;The first layer is the reptilian brain (its core), responsible for activation, arousal, homeostasis, and reproductive drives. This is the dinosaur brain, the same brain that has been around for 2,000,000 years. The reticular formation at the conjunction of the thalamus and the brainstem oscillates at 2Hz (delta) {Thatcher, 2015). At&nbsp;birth, this structure is already in place and fully functional.</p><p><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/triune%20brain.jpg\" alt=\"Triune Brain\" width=\"699\" height=\"455\" style=\"font-size: 1rem;\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></p><p></p><p></p><p>The reptilian brain controls the body’s most basic, involuntary actions, like a heartbeat, breathing, body temperature regulation, and balance. It consists of the brainstem and the cerebellum (which joins the limbic thalamus by the reticular activating system). The cerebellum is the most densely packed area; surprisingly, this is where 80% of the brain’s neurons live (Herculano-Houzel, 2010). Used mostly for gross movements and balance, parts of the cerebellum are involved in the coordination of language, memory, and&nbsp;reasoning (Schmahmann, 1997). Interestingly, new literature suggests that the cerebellum plays a significant role in regulating the cerebrum, both via white matter (sub-cortically) and via grey&nbsp;matter (cortically) (Schmahmann, 1997, 1998, 2000; Teicher, Anderson, &amp; Polcari, 2012). This is the part of the brain that is cradled by the hand of a loving mother, and the part of the brain that also unconsciously senses the absence of her hand, in situations of neglect (Fisher, 2014, p. 23).</p><p><br></p><h2><a name=\"_Toc28940388\"></a><a name=\"_Toc3535195\">Brainstem</a></h2><p>The brainstem is responsible for carrying all information from the body to the cerebrum and cerebellum (hindbrain) and from the brain to the body. The pathways ascending from the body to the brain are the sensory pathways and communicate to your brain that which is going on with the body (pain, hunger, desires, temperature, sensations, etc). The descending pathways move from the brain to the body. The last job of the brain stem is its regulation of various systems, such as your cardiovascular system, respiratory system, pain sensitivity controls, as well as alertness, and consciousness.</p><p><b>The medulla oblongata</b>&nbsp;or simply&nbsp;<b>medulla</b>&nbsp;is a long stem-like structure which makes up the lower part of the&nbsp;brainstem.&nbsp;It is anterior and partially inferior to the&nbsp;cerebellum. It is a cone-shaped&nbsp;neuronal&nbsp;mass responsible for&nbsp;autonomic&nbsp;(inv<span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">oluntary) functions, ranging from&nbsp;</span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">vomiting</span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;to&nbsp;</span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">sneezing</span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">.</span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;The medulla contains the&nbsp;</span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">cardiac</span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">,&nbsp;</span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">respiratory</span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">,&nbsp;</span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">vomiting</span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;and&nbsp;</span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">vasomotor</span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;centers, and therefore deals with the autonomic functions of&nbsp;</span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">breathing</span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">,&nbsp;</span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">heart rate</span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;and&nbsp;</span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">blood pressure</span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">. The sleep wake cycle is associated with the pons.</span></p><p><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Medulla%20Oblongata.jpg\" alt=\"Medulla oblongata\" width=\"500\" height=\"378\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></span></p><p>The brainstem plays a primary role in conduit functions. That is, all information related from the body to the cerebrum and cerebellum and vice versa must traverse the brain stem. The ascending pathways coming from the body to the brain are the sensory pathways. Descending tracts are upper motor neurons destined to synapses on lower motor neurons. The brain stem also has integrative functions. It is involved in cardiovascular system control, respiratory control, pain sensitivity control, alertness, and consciousness.</p>Here is a short video on the anatomy of the brainstem.<p></p><p>&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T2zjlB4ctu4\">brainstem</a><br></p><p></p><h2><a name=\"_Toc28940390\">THE LIMBIC SYSTEM</a></h2><p>After the reptilian brain is formed, the next layer, the paleomammalian brain, better known as the limbic system, is primed and ready to be further developed by early life experiences. This area is largely responsible for the functions of memory, learning, and emotion. This second layer is responsible for basic autonomic functioning, as well as reflexes, and basic survival (DeRidder, 2014). The proliferation of the limbic system created higher frequencies, such as theta and alpha. The limbic structures include the amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, and cingulate gyrus. These limbic structures are wrapped in the cerebral cortex, which is the outermost and third layer of the brain.</p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Limbic%20System.png\" alt=\"Limbic System\" width=\"600\" height=\"357\" class=\"atto_image_button_left\"><br></p><p>From an evolutionary perspective, the reptilian brain is fully functional at birth and the second layer—the limbic system—is prepared for the organizational experiences of early life. The neuronal development of the brain’s first and second layers are virtually complete at birth; the branching of dendrites that occurs thereafter is dubbed “wiring,” since the growth of neurons and dendrites resembles wires (Seung, 2012). The wiring and creation of oligodendrocytes (glia cells&nbsp;<span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">responsible for myelination) now occurs from the limbic structures into the cortex. The self-reliance of the brain circuits has increased as we have evolved, and have moved to higher levels in the brain, ones that have less and less contact with sensory inputs.</span></p><p>Most of our significant early emotional and intellectual experiences, those that shape our later perceptions and reactions, occur when the limbic and reptilian structures are in dominance (Cozolino, 2002, p. 9). That is to say, many of our social-emotional reactions and behaviors are literally programmed beneath the surface of our consciousness. Indeed, empirical evidence suggests that processing emotion can occur without conscious awareness (Balconi &amp; Lucchiari, 2008; Bunce, Bernat, Wong, &amp; Shevrin, 1999; LeDoux, 1998a). What you smell goes directly into the limbic system, smell is the only sense that is not mediated by the thalamus. Head damage or virus (such as COVID-19) can affect this system, preventing the capability of smell. Severance of this connection is common in severe head trauma.</p><p>The sense of smell is tied directly to memory and emotion because the olfactory blub connect directly to the hippocampus, the seat of memory. Smells can create emotion because the olfactory projections link into the limbic system and the amygdala.</p><p>&nbsp;</p><h3><a name=\"_Toc28940391\">Neuroanatomy of the Limbic System</a></h3><p><b>&nbsp;</b>The amygdala is located within the temporal&nbsp;lobes. It is essential to the experience of fear responses and its primary function is arousal. This complex structure controls the autonomic responses associated with fear; emotional responses {i.e. rage and anger) and Hormonal Secretions. The right-side amygdala is devoted to survival and reacts to threats, both real and perceived. The amygdala is an almond-shaped mass of nuclei located deep within the temporal lobes, medial to the hypothalamus and adjacent to the hippocampus. This area of the brain is prone to kindling, which is essentially repetitive neuronal firing that gives rise to high amplitudes until the pattern collapses. Each kindling lowers the threshold of the future ones, making them more likely.</p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/amygdala.png\" alt=\"amygdala\" width=\"400\" height=\"513\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\" style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"></p></div><div><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"><br></span></div><div><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"><br></span></div><div><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"><br></span></div><div><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">Check out this video of the Amygdala:</span><br></div><div><p></p><p>&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JVvMSwsOXPw\">Amygdala</a><br></p><p></p><h3><br></h3><h4>Basal Ganglia</h4><p>The Basal Ganglia are collections of nerve cells deep within the brain. Most of the basal ganglia are concerned with movement, though parts are devoted to language, thought, motivation and emotion. They include the caudate nucleus, the putamen, the thalamus, the globus pallidus, and the tail of the caudate nucleus.</p><p><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Basal%20Ganglia.png\" alt=\"Basal Ganglia\" width=\"500\" height=\"350\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><br></p><div><h4>Diencephalon</h4><p>This is the division of the forebrain, the forward most portion of the brain in vertebrates, which controls temperature, reproductive functions, eating, sleeping, and the display of emotions. The diencephalon includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior portion of the pituitary gland and the pineal gland. The third ventricle is enclosed by the diencephalon.&nbsp;</p><p><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/diencephalon.jpg\" alt=\"diencephalon\" width=\"500\" height=\"376\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><br></p><h4>Hypothalamus</h4><p>The hypothalamus links the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland (hypophysis). The hypothalamus controls body temperature, hunger, thirst, fatigue, anger, and circadian cycles. The hypothalamus is located below the thalamus, just above the brain stem. The hypothalamus is responsible for certain metabolic processes and other activities of the autonomic nervous system. It synthesizes and secretes neurohormones, often called hypothalamic-releasing hormones, and these, in turn, stimulate or inhibit the secretion of pituitary hormones.</p><p><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \">&nbsp;<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/hypothtrlamus.jpg\" alt=\"hypothalamus\" width=\"500\" height=\"250\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><br></p><p>For your viewing pleasure, a short video on the hypothalamus:</p><p>&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TVhm2rBGhB0&amp;t=15s\">Hypothalamus</a>&nbsp;<br></p><p><br></p><h4>Hippocampus&nbsp;</h4><p>&nbsp;The hippocampus is a part of the forebrain, located in the medial temporal lobe. It belongs to the limbic system and plays major roles in short term memory and spatial navigation.</p><p>&nbsp;Here\'s a video on the hippocampus:&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5EyaGR8GGhs\">Hippocampus</a></p><p>This is a video about a famous person named \"HM\" and his life without a hippocampus.</p><p><a href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KkaXNvzE4pk\">HM</a></p><p><br></p><h4>Pituitary</h4><p>The pituitary is a small pea-size master gland of the endocrine system that sits in a bony depression beneath the hypothalamus. Its job deals with directing chemical changes to regulate the entire organic system.</p><p>Here is a short video on the hormones that come from the pituitary gland:</p><p><a href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7rWPKHFMqEU\">Pituitary</a><br></p><p>&nbsp;</p><h4>Reticular formation</h4><p>The reticular formation (also known as the reticular activating system) is at the core of the brainstem and plays a vital role in sleep, emotion, breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate.&nbsp;The reticular formation oscillates at 2 hz and is the dinosaur brain, roughly&nbsp;<i>2,000,000&nbsp;</i>years old in its evolutionary trajectory, is the same structure that we have.</p><p><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/RAS.jpg\" alt=\"RAS\" width=\"600\" height=\"600\"><br></p></div><h4>Thalamus</h4><p>The thalamus is an egg-shaped structure deep within the brain that acts as a relay station, receiving information from all senses (except olfactory) &nbsp;processing the data and passing it between the spinal&nbsp;<i>cord,</i><i>&nbsp;</i>the medulla oblongata and the cerebral cortex. It relays sensory signals like motor signals to the&nbsp;<i>cortex,&nbsp;</i>and it also plays in the regulation of sleep and arousal states. It is the beginning of the brain\'s formation at 5 weeks in utero.</p><p>The thalamus is composed of the thalamic nuclei, which aids in the processing of various stimuli. Here is a general video of the thalamus and the thalamic nuclei:</p><p>&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Szt_OkcMPmM\">Thalamus</a></p><p>Here is a general video of the Basal Ganglia</p><p>&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=InJByqg1x-0\">Basal Nucleus</a><br></p><h4>Caudate Nucleus</h4><p>The caudate nucleus is one of the structures that makes up the dorsal striatum of the basal ganglia. This part of the brain&nbsp;plays important roles in various other nonmotor functions as well, including&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural_learning\" title=\"Procedural learning\">procedural learning</a>,&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associative_learning\" title=\"Associative learning\">associative learning</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inhibitory_control\" title=\"Inhibitory control\">inhibitory control</a>&nbsp;of action, &nbsp;among other functions. The caudate is also one of the brain structures which compose the&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reward_system\" title=\"Reward system\">reward system</a>&nbsp;and functions as part of the&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex\" title=\"Prefrontal cortex\">cortico</a>–<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basal_ganglia\" title=\"Basal ganglia\">basal ganglia</a>–<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thalamus\" title=\"Thalamus\">thalamic</a>&nbsp;loop.</p><p>And here is a little video of the Caudate Nucleus (It\'s a little funky, but helps explain anatomy):</p><p>&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GcB5_gXka2g&amp;t=4s\">Funky vid</a><br></p><p>&nbsp;</p><h4><a name=\"_Toc525053947\">Parahippocampal Gyrus</a></h4><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><a name=\"_Toc525053947\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Parahippocampal%20gyrus.jpg\" alt=\"PArahippocampal gyrus\" width=\"700\" height=\"495\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc525053947\"></a><a name=\"_Hlk525136529\">The parahippocampal gyrus is a region which is responsible for many functions, most notably for short-term working memory. The left-hand side is related to more verbal processes than the right, the right-hand side has more to do with forming associations. This area of the brain has much to do with the encoding and recognition of scenes; this area of the brain becomes active when taking in topographical scenes (images of cities, landscapes, and rooms—images of places).&nbsp; Furthermore, this area is involved in procedural memory consolidation, recognition, and recall. It is a component part of the networks for autobiographical memory, embarrassment, and regret.</a><br></p><p><a name=\"_Hlk525136529\">The parahippocampal gyrus is a region which is responsible for many functions, most notably for short-term working memory. The left-hand side is related to more verbal processes than the right, the right-hand side has more to do with forming associations. This area of the brain has much to do with the encoding and recognition of scenes; this area of the brain becomes active when taking in topographical scenes (images of cities, landscapes, and rooms—images of places).&nbsp; Furthermore, this area is involved in procedural memory consolidation, recognition, and recall. It is a component part of the networks for autobiographical memory, embarrassment, and regret.</a></p><br><p></p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/parahippocampal%20gyrus.png\" alt=\"parahippocampal gyrus\" width=\"566\" height=\"651\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></p><h4>Tiff Thompson\'s Depth Theory of Neuroanatomy</h4><p></p><p>Proponents of the collective unconscious theory in neuroscience have suggested that neurobiological correlates to the collective unconscious are the subcortical areas of the brain, specifically the thalamus (which oscillates in delta, theta, and alpha rhythms). The thalamus operates like a regulatory gateway, since all of the sensory input that comes into the brain, and all motor output, goes through the thalamus. The thalamus regulates what goes in and what goes out.&nbsp; Because these structures are located centrally, linking the brain with the rest of the nervous system, they are said to control vital processes, such as emotions and long-term memory (Hunt, 2012). Arousal occurs in the face of a threat, triggered by the amygdala, which is an almond-shaped structure in the brain responsible for mediating the fear response. The amygdala locks down the hippocampus so as to react by shutting down this structure, the seat of the memory (LeDoux, 1998b). LeDoux speculates, however, that psychoanalysis works by strengthening the cortical control of the amygdala. In fact, the face-to-face reciprocity between infant and mother is crucial for the development of the pre-frontal cortex, which serves to mediate the amygdala and regulate affect (Schore, 1994, 2003; Siegel, 1999; Stern, 2013; Tronick, 2007).</p><p>Sigmund Freud, quite rightly, believed that mental activity was rooted in phylogenically­ old emotion and motivation systems, which were constructed in early mental development, and instantiated throughout later adult life (LeDoux, 1998a;Panskepp, 1998). Thus, affective reactivity, such as dissociation, can be seen as a return to nonverbal, largely unconscious parts of the brain. These are areas that can influence the higher-ordered new-mammalian brain (Cozolino, 2002, p. 6). Furthermore, these older regions are innervated &nbsp;by the vagus nerve, which literally means \"wandering nerve.\" The vagus nerve is also called the \"wandering nerve\" because it\'s the longest nerve in the human body and has countless branches that wind their way from the brainstem all the way down to the lowest part of the intestines, touching most major organs along the way. The vagus nerve is the tenth cranial nerve and is the main afferent pathway connecting the gut to the brain. This nerve modulates the parasympathetic nervous system, which counterbalances the fight, flight,&nbsp;or freezes stress response by eliciting the so­ called \"relaxation &nbsp;response.\"</p><h4>The Vagus Nerve</h4><p>&nbsp;<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Vagus%20Nerve.jpg\" alt=\"Vagus Nerve\" width=\"250\" height=\"731\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\">A study released in June of 2015 noted the discovery of vessels directly connecting the brain and the lymphatic system, a finding which will likely have continual substantial implications for major neurological diseases and also more common psychopathologies (Louveau et al., 2015). This finding changes the way scientists perceive neuro-immune interaction and may make the link between the body and the brain/mind something beyond esotericism.</p></div><br>Here\'s a short video pf Stephen Porges and his Theory on the Polyvagal Network:<br><a href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ec3AUMDjtKQ\">Porges</a><br><br><p></p>',1),(350,76,0,0,20,0,1,1,1588619613,1597383521,'Pre-Frontal Cortex and Meninges','<p></p><p>As previously mentioned, t<span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">he outermost cerebral cortex (neocortex) is made up of six\r\nlayers of closely packed cells of different types:</span></p><p>\r\n\r\n</p><p><b>I-Molecular or plexiform layer: axons &amp; dendrites; few cell bodies </b></p>\r\n\r\n<p><b>II-External Granular Layer: densely packed stellate cells; a\r\nfew small pyramidal cells. </b></p>\r\n\r\n<p><b>III-Pyramidal Layer: loosely packed stellate cells;\r\nintermediate-sized pyramidal cells. </b></p>\r\n\r\n<p><b>IV-Internal Granular Layer: bands of densely packed stellate\r\ncells; no pyramidal cells. </b></p>\r\n\r\n<p><b>V- Internal Pyramidal Layer or Ganglionic Layer: very large pyramidal cells; a\r\nfew loosely packed stellate cells. </b></p>\r\n\r\n<p><b>VI-Multiform or Poly Morphous Layer: Pyramidal cells of various sizes;\r\nloosely packed stellate cells. </b></p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/pyramidal%20cells.jpg\" alt=\"Pyramidal 1\" width=\"800\" height=\"718\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></p>\r\n\r\n<p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Pyramidal%202.jpg?time=1597383446743\" alt=\"Pyramidal 2\" width=\"759\" height=\"377\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></span></p><p><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">Most of these cortical cells can be classified as either\r\npyramidal or non-pyramidal based on their morphology, transmitter content and\r\ndistribution in cortical layers. Pyramidal cells with their characteristic\r\npyramid shape appear to be crucial to cortical EEG activity for several\r\nreasons. Pyramidal cells have long dendrites extending from lower layers of the\r\ncortex to the outermost layers of the neocortex. These dendrites are known as\r\napical dendrites. The length of these dendrites and the fact that they are\r\noriented perpendicular to the surface of the brain allows for input and synapses\r\nfrom other cells in several layers of the cortex. Non-pyramidal cells in the\r\ncortex, such as stellate (star shaped) are found at other levels of the\r\nneocortex. Their axons, however are more oriented vertically and horizontally\r\nand do not leave the cortex and appear to act more as interneurons as they\r\nterminate on nearby neurons (intercortical connections) and pyramidal cells.\r\nMany non-pyramidal cells contain an inhibitory transmitter substance (GABA) and\r\nit is thought that these cells may play an inhibitory action in the cortex. In\r\naddition, some non-pyramidal cells receive input directly from thalamic centers\r\nand are believed to act as a link from the thalamus to the cortex in pacing\r\nthalamocortical electrical activity (thalamocortical connections).</span></p><h3><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"><b><h3><a name=\"_Toc28940409\">Pre-Frontal Cortex</a></h3></b></span></h3><p>The pre-frontal cortex is involved in working memory, the planning of complex behaviors, and coordination of thought in relation to goals and decision-making (Gorochowski, 2009). This area of the brain is responsible for higher-ordered tasks, such as thinking, planning, motor execution, and mood control (Thatcher, 2015). With the evolution of the cerebral cortex, our early ancestors (Cro-Magnon man), once a free-roaming and wild species wholly reliable upon instincts, found themselves with higher cognitive thought, which upturned the previous reliance on unconscious drives and desires. With this outward growth of their brains, they were forced to think, deduce,</p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/PRE%20FRONTAL%20CORTEx.png\" alt=\"Pre Frontal Cortex\" width=\"834\" height=\"338\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><p><a name=\"_Toc28940402\" style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem;\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940402\" style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem;\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940402\" style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem;\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940402\" style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem;\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940402\" style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem;\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940402\" style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem;\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940402\" style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem;\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940402\" style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem;\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940402\" style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem;\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940402\" style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem;\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940402\" style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem;\">One interesting component of neurophysiology that has been discovered is that our prefrontal cortex can simulate the future (Byrne &amp; Reiner, 2006). This has been most popularly described in the case of Olympian athletes (Byrne &amp; Reiner, 2006). It has been proven that the same portions of the brain fire when these individuals complete their event in their mind as does when they are actually competing in the event. Taking the internal perspective triggers the somatosensory perspective (Casey &amp; Romanyshyn, 2010). In interviewing gymnasts, many of those who have qualified for the Olympics speak of using internal imagery—that is, they saw themselves inside their minds conducting their gymnastic feats, whereas those who did not qualify for the Olympics commonly used external imagery; they watched videotapes more and relied on observing others (Byrne &amp; Reiner, 2006).</a><br></p><h2><a name=\"_Toc28940404\">Meninges</a></h2><p>The three membranes of elastic connective tissues that envelop the brain and the spinal cord are called meninges. The three layers are:</p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940405\"><b>Dura Mater</b></a>&nbsp;– the outermost and toughest layer of the meninges</p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940406\"><b>Arachnoid Mater</b></a>&nbsp;– The web-like middle layer of the meninges</p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940407\"><b>Pia Mater</b></a>&nbsp;– The innermost layer of the meninges</p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/MENINGES.png\" alt=\"Meninges\" width=\"500\" height=\"345\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/meninges2.png\" alt=\"meninges\" width=\"500\" height=\"312\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"><br></p><p>The purpose of the meninges is to protect the brain and support its structure, including anchoring the brain and the brain stem to the skull. They also contain&nbsp;cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which acts as a cushion for the brain and provides a solution in which the brain is suspended, allowing it to preserve its shape.</p><p></p><p>Meningitis is inflammation of the meninges and spinal cord membranes, often caused by an infection.</p><p></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/MENINGES.png\" alt=\"mENINGITIS\" width=\"452\" height=\"255\" style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"></p><p></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940402\"></a></p><h3><a name=\"_Toc28940409\">The actions of meningitis</a></h3><p></p><p>Meningitis is an inflammation of the membranes (meninges) surrounding your brain and spinal cord.&nbsp;<span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">The swelling from meningitis typically triggers symptoms such as headache, fever and a stiff neck.</span></p><p>Most cases of meningitis in the United States are caused by a viral infection, but bacterial, parasitic and fungal infections are other causes. Some cases of meningitis improve without treatment in a few weeks. Others can be life-threatening and require emergency antibiotic treatment.</p><p></p><p>Viral infections are the most common cause of meningitis, followed by bacterial infections and, rarely, fungal infections. Because bacterial infections can be life-threatening, identifying the cause is essential.</p><h3>Bacterial meningitis</h3><p>Bacteria that enter the bloodstream and travel to the brain and spinal cord cause acute bacterial meningitis. But it can also occur when bacteria directly invade the meninges. This may be caused by an ear or sinus infection, a skull fracture, or, rarely, after some surgeries.</p><p>Several strains of bacteria can cause acute bacterial meningitis, most commonly:</p><ul><li><strong>Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus).</strong>&nbsp;This bacterium is the most common cause of bacterial meningitis in infants, young children and adults in the United States. It more commonly causes pneumonia or ear or sinus infections. A vaccine can help prevent this infection.</li><li><strong>Neisseria meningitidis (meningococcus).</strong>&nbsp;This bacterium is another leading cause of bacterial meningitis. These bacteria commonly cause an upper respiratory infection but can cause meningococcal meningitis when they enter the bloodstream. This is a highly contagious infection that affects mainly teenagers and young adults. It may cause local epidemics in college dormitories, boarding schools and military bases. A vaccine can help prevent infection.</li><li><strong>Haemophilus influenzae (haemophilus).</strong>&nbsp;Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) bacterium was once the leading cause of bacterial meningitis in children. But new Hib vaccines have greatly reduced the number of cases of this type of meningitis.</li><li><strong>Listeria monocytogenes (listeria).</strong>&nbsp;These bacteria can be found in unpasteurized cheeses, hot dogs and lunchmeats. Pregnant women, newborns, older adults and people with weakened immune systems are most susceptible. Listeria can cross the placental barrier, and infections in late pregnancy may be fatal to the baby.</li></ul><h3>Viral meningitis</h3><p>Viral meningitis is usually mild and often clears on its own. Most cases in the United States are caused by a group of viruses known as enteroviruses, which are most common in late summer and early fall. Viruses such as herpes simplex virus, HIV, mumps, West Nile virus and others also can cause viral meningitis.</p><h3>Chronic meningitis</h3><p>Slow-growing organisms (such as fungi and Mycobacterium tuberculosis) that invade the membranes and fluid surrounding your brain cause chronic meningitis. Chronic meningitis develops over two weeks or more. The signs and symptoms of chronic meningitis — headaches, fever, vomiting and mental cloudiness — are similar to those of acute meningitis.</p><h3>Fungal meningitis</h3><p>Fungal meningitis is relatively uncommon and causes chronic meningitis. It may mimic acute bacterial meningitis. Fungal meningitis isn\'t contagious from person to person. Cryptococcal meningitis is a common fungal form of the disease that affects people with immune deficiencies, such as AIDS. It\'s life-threatening if not treated with an antifungal medication.</p><h3>Other meningitis causes</h3><p>Meningitis can also result from noninfectious causes, such as chemical reactions, drug allergies, some types of cancer and inflammatory diseases such as sarcoidosis.</p><h2><br></h2><p></p><br><p></p><br><p style=\"text-align: center;\">&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Meningitis.png\" alt=\"Meningitis\" width=\"700\" height=\"451\" style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;\" class=\"atto_image_button_text-bottom\"></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\">Possible signs and symptoms in anyone older than the age of 2 include:</p><ul><li style=\"text-align: left;\">Sudden high fever</li><li style=\"text-align: left;\">Stiff neck</li><li style=\"text-align: left;\">Severe headache that seems different than normal</li><li style=\"text-align: left;\">Headache with nausea or vomiting</li><li style=\"text-align: left;\">Confusion or difficulty concentrating</li><li style=\"text-align: left;\">Seizures</li><li style=\"text-align: left;\">Sleepiness or difficulty waking</li><li style=\"text-align: left;\">Sensitivity to light</li><li style=\"text-align: left;\">No appetite or thirst</li><li style=\"text-align: left;\">Skin rash (sometimes, such as in meningococcal meningitis)</li></ul><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p></p>',1),(351,77,0,0,20,0,1,1,1588619686,1593013362,'The Lobes','<p></p><p>The basic division of each of the hemispheres is into four lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital. Two prominent ﬁssures allow this subdivision to be made — the central ﬁssure and the lateral ﬁssure.</p><br><br><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp; &nbsp;</span><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Lobes.png\" alt=\"Lobes\" width=\"557\" height=\"368\" style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><br></p><p></p><p></p><h2><a name=\"_Toc28940412\">Pre-Frontal Cortex</a></h2><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/PFC.png\" alt=\"PFC\" width=\"300\" height=\"237\" class=\"atto_image_button_left\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"></span></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;The prefrontal cortex&nbsp;makes up over 10% of the volume of the brain, The PFC contains the&nbsp;Brodmann areas 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 24, 25, 44, 46 and 47.&nbsp;<sup>&nbsp;</sup>This brain region has been implicated in&nbsp;planning complex cognitive behavior, personality expression,&nbsp;decision&nbsp;<span>making, moderating social behavior, and&nbsp;</span>moderating certain aspects of speech and language.&nbsp;The basic activity of this brain region is considered to be orchestration of thoughts and actions in accordance with internal goals.</span><sup>&nbsp;</sup><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">The most typical&nbsp;psychological&nbsp;term for functions carried out by the prefrontal cortex area is&nbsp;executive function. Executive function relates to abilities to differentiate among conflicting thoughts, determine good and bad, better and best, same and different, future consequences of current activities, working toward a defined goal, prediction of outcomes, expectation based on actions, and social \"control\" (the ability to suppress urges that, if not suppressed, could lead to socially unacceptable outcomes). Patients with prefrontal cortex damage can experience blunted emotional responses, which may be another factor that negatively affects their ability to make decisions.</span></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"><br></span></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"><br></span></p><p></p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Frontal%20Lobes.png\" alt=\"Frontal Lobes\" width=\"300\" height=\"255\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></p><p>Frontal lobes have the ability to regulate eye movement this is visual accommodation and convergence, the ability of the eyes to go left and right and focus and read.&nbsp; There is a physiological problem with ADD/ADHD kids—they have more difficulty keeping their eyes still.</p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940413\" style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.715rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940413\" style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.715rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\">Dorso-Lateral Pre-Frontal Cortex</a><br></p><p>Between Brodmann areas 9, 10, 44 and 45 is the Dorso-Lateral Pre-Frontal Cortex (DLPFC).<a name=\"_Hlk494097976\">&nbsp;This area&nbsp;</a><a name=\"_Hlk520354468\">is the highest cortical area responsible for motor planning, organization and regulation. It has an important role in the integration of sensory and mnemonic information.</a></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><a name=\"_Hlk520354468\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/DLPFC.jpg\" alt=\"DLPFC\" width=\"300\" height=\"279\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"><br></a></p><p>This area has cortical (surface) and sub cortical (under the surface—white matter) circuits for complex mental activity and executive functions. It plays a large role in executive memory (working memory, spatial memory, and short term memory), memory retrieval and encoding/recognition, as well as prospective memory, abstract thinking, intentionality and motivation.</p><p>In addition, this area is responsible for error processing and detection, processing emotional stimuli, self-reflection in decision making, pleasant and unpleasant emotions, inferential reasoning, decision weighing (conflict and reward), planning, and attribution of intention to others.</p><p>The sensory responsibilities of the dorsolateral pre-frontal cortex have to do with joint attention and autonomic nervous system regulation. The&nbsp;autonomic nervous system&nbsp;(ANS&nbsp;or&nbsp;visceral nervous system&nbsp;or&nbsp;involuntary nervous system) is the part of the&nbsp;peripheral nervous system&nbsp;that acts as a&nbsp;control system&nbsp;that functions largely below the level of&nbsp;consciousness&nbsp;to control&nbsp;visceral&nbsp;functions,&nbsp;including&nbsp;heart rate,&nbsp;digestion,&nbsp;respiratory rate,&nbsp;salivation,&nbsp;perspiration,&nbsp;pupillary dilation,&nbsp;micturition&nbsp;(urination),&nbsp;sexual arousal,&nbsp;breathing&nbsp;and&nbsp;swallowing. Most autonomous functions are involuntary but they can often work in conjunction with the&nbsp;somatic nervous system&nbsp;which provides voluntary control.</p><h2>Sensory motor Cortex</h2><p>The sensory-motor cortex registers sensation that is connected with specific body parts or body functions. The motor strip is part of the frontal lobe and is anterior to the sensory cortex, which is in the parietal lobe. Collectively, the sensory-motor cortex forms the central lobes of the brain. The primary motor cortex is Brodmann area 4, which works with other motor areas of the brain to plan and execute movements. The primary motor cortex receives thalamic inputs from different cell bodies within the thalamus. The nerve fibers that cast somatosensory information all over the body. &nbsp;The sensory-motor cortex is made up of Brodmann areas 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.</p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/CENTRAL%20LOBE.png\" alt=\"CENTRAL LOBE\" width=\"300\" height=\"228\" style=\"font-size: 1rem;\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></p><h2><a name=\"_Toc28940415\">Homunculus</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<p>The homunculus is a neurological map that corresponds to the\r\nbrain’s territory for different body parts. Homunculus is a Latin term that\r\nliterally means “little man.”&nbsp; The\r\nanatomically correct homunculus demonstrates the brain area that is overly\r\nproportioned for the hands, mouth and tongue, second only to the ears, nose and\r\neyes.</p><p><br></p>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left; \"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/homunculus%201.png\" alt=\"homunculus 1\" width=\"600\" height=\"305\" style=\"text-align: center; \" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Homunculus%202.png\" alt=\"homunculus 2\" width=\"260\" height=\"282\">&nbsp;<!--[endif]--></p><p style=\"text-align: right;\"><br></p><p></p><h3>Temporal Lobes</h3><p>The temporal lobe is so named\r\nbecause of its proximity to the temples. It is positioned toward the base of\r\nthe center of the cortex, just behind the temples. The&nbsp;temporal lobe&nbsp;is involved\r\nin&nbsp;primary&nbsp;auditory perception, such as hearing, and holds\r\nthe&nbsp;primary&nbsp;auditory cortex. <a name=\"_Hlk28772267\">The&nbsp;<b>primary</b>&nbsp;auditory\r\ncortex receives sensory information from the ears and secondary areas process\r\nthe information into meaningful units such as speech and words</a>. Much of the auditory work of the\r\ntemporal lobes is processed through the top of the temporal lobes—the superior\r\ntemporal gyrus. This region directly receives sound input from the ear. Some of\r\nthe other important functions of this brain region are:</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->a.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->The formation of visual memories.\r\nIn coordination with the amygdala and the hippocampus, this region create long\r\nterm memories of conscious events. </p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->b.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->The interpretation of visual\r\nstimuli (this region recognizes faces and reads body language)</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->c.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->The controlling of unconscious and\r\nautomatic relations, such as hunger and thirst</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->d.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->The production of speech, which\r\ninvolves a conscious choice of what to say (this region is involved in “tip-of\r\nthe-tongue” phenomena.</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->e.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->The recognition of language (both\r\nverbal and non-verbal).</p>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->f.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Kolb &amp; Wishaw (1990) have\r\nidentified eight principle symptoms of temporal lobe damage: 1) disturbance of auditory\r\nsensation and perception, 2) disturbance of selective attention of auditory and\r\nvisual input, 3) disorders of visual perception, 4) impaired organization and\r\ncategorization of verbal material, 5) disturbance of language comprehension, 6)\r\nimpaired long-term memory, 7) altered personality and affective behavior, 8)\r\naltered sexual behavior. The temporal lobes includes the hippocampal formation and the\r\ninferior horn of the lateral ventricle.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>The temporal lobe is made up for Brodmann areas 20 21, 22, 28, 35,\r\n36, 37, 38, 41, 42, and 52.</p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Temporal%20Lobes.png\" alt=\"Temporal Lobes\" width=\"300\" height=\"242\" style=\"font-size: 1rem;\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></p><p></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/temporal%20brodmann.png\" alt=\"temporal brodmann\" width=\"300\" height=\"224\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"><br></p><p></p><h2><a name=\"_Toc28940417\">Parietal Lobes</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p>The parietal\r\nlobes are divided into the superior and inferior parietal lobes. This region of\r\nthe brain is known largely for visuo-spatial attention, navigation, the\r\nintegration of senses and the major sensory inputs from the skin, which relay\r\nthrough the thalamus to the parietal lobes. The parietal lobe is abutted by the\r\nRolandic Fissure, which runs coronally through the brain, the Sylvian Fissure,\r\nwhich separates the temporal lobe from the parietal and the frontal lobe, and\r\nthe parieto-occipital sulcus.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>The posterior\r\nparietal cortex is made of the superior parietal lobe (Brodmann areas 5 and 7)\r\nand the inferior parietal lobes (Brodmann areas 39 and 40, which are separated\r\nby the intraparietal sulcus. This sulcus and the adjacent gyri are essential in\r\nlimb and eye movement. Each hemisphere rules the sensation of the skin on the\r\nopposite side of the body. The parietal lobes are used for the manipulation of\r\nobjects. The parietal lobe also includes the dorsal stream of vision, which is\r\nthe “where” in space an object appears. And the “how” stream, which has to do\r\nwith vision for action.</p>\r\n\r\n<h3><a name=\"_Toc28940418\"></a><a name=\"_Toc16242865\">Inferior Parietal Lobule</a> (BA 39 &amp; 40)</h3>\r\n\r\n<p>The inferior parietal lobule has been involved in the\r\nperception of emotions in facial stimuli,<sup> </sup>and interpretation of\r\nsensory information. The Inferior parietal lobule is concerned with language,\r\nmathematical operations, and body image, particularly the supramarginal gyrus\r\nand the angular gyrus. </p><p></p><p></p><h3><a name=\"_Toc28940419\">Superior Parietal Lobe (BA 5 &amp; 7)</a></h3>\r\n\r\n<p>There is a\r\ngreat deal of activity at the superior parietal lobe. This area is responsible\r\nfor spatial orientation, as well as sensory input from the hand.&nbsp; This region is also responsible for the\r\nintegration of sensory information in various modalities, including navigation\r\nand orienting oneself in space. It is the main sensory area as related to touch\r\nand sensory inputs from the skin (touch, temperature and pain receptors), which\r\nare relayed through the thalamus).&nbsp; </p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/parietal%20lobes.jpg\" alt=\"parietal lobes\" width=\"300\" height=\"281\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\" style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"></p><p></p><p></p><h2><a name=\"_Toc28940420\">Occipital Lobe</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p>The occipital\r\nlobe of the brain is divided into Brodmann areas 17, 18 and 19. This region is\r\nknown as the visual cortex of the brain. Visual nerves run straight from the\r\neye to the primary visual cortex to the visual association cortex. The lateral\r\noccipital sulcus divides the occipital gyrus into a superior and inferior part.\r\nThe cuneus is a smaller lobe in the occipital lobe of the brain. This region\r\nis bounded anteriorly by the parietao-occipital sulcus, and inferiorly by the\r\ncalcitrine sulcus. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>The occipital\r\nlobe is responsible for visual processing. This includes the perception of\r\nlight, intensity, motion, shapes, patterns, and color. Pattern recognition is\r\nimportant for piecing together words, reading sentences, and decoding visual\r\nstimuli in general.</p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Occipital%20Lobes.png\" alt=\"Occipital Lobes\" width=\"300\" height=\"235\" style=\"font-size: 1rem;\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></p><p></p><p></p><h2><a name=\"_Toc28940421\">Cerebellum</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p><b>&nbsp;</b></p>\r\n\r\n<p>The\r\ncerebellum is the hindbrain structure that is connected to the brainstem by\r\nfibers that carry information into and out of its interior. The main function\r\nof the cerebellum is coordinating movement and planning motor activity\r\n(balance, muscle tension, joint position, and coordinated movements). It is\r\nfolded, like the cortex, which gives it high information processing power. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Eighty per cent of the brain’s neurons are in the cerebellum (Herculano-Houzel, 2010)\r\nand emerging literature (Schmahmann, 1997; 1998, 2000; Teicher, Anderson, &amp;\r\nPolcari, 2012; Levin, 2009) suggests that the cerebellum plays a significant\r\nrole in regulating the cerebrum, both cortically and sub-cortically. This is\r\nthe part of the brain that remembers how to ride a bike, and remembers being\r\nrocked by mother.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>The cerebellum has strong connections with the brainstem and is\r\nsituated behind the brainstem (inside the skull) in humans. Because the\r\ncerebellum is a simpler form of cortex, it consists of only three layers&nbsp; (as opposed to the more evolved cerebral\r\ncortex, which has six layers). Parts of the cerebellum are quite old in the\r\nevolutionary sense, and parts are relatively newer. This “little brain” is\r\ninvolved in motor coordination and also in the planning of movements. The\r\ncerebellum is involved with motor control and is part of the motor system,\r\ninﬂuencing posture, gait, and voluntary movements. Many of the connections to\r\nthe cerebellum, including pathways and nuclei, are found in the brainstem.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>According to\r\nSebern Fisher (2014), Babies and young children learn through their senses and\r\nthe integration of sensory input. Sensory integration is the province of the\r\nparietal cortex and the cerebellum . . . . the development of the infant’s\r\ncerebellum depends mostly on the security, consistency, and rhythmicity of his\r\nparents’ holding. When there is a history of significant neglect, the mother\r\ndoes not hold her infant with intentionality or feeling. Many in fact report\r\nnever having been rocked or held, activities which promote the development of\r\nthe cerebellum (22). Some folks comment that they feel an emptiness at the back\r\nof their head, where a loving hand would normally cradle the baby (22).</p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Cerebellum.png\" alt=\"Cdrebellum\" width=\"300\" height=\"241\" style=\"font-size: 1rem;\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></p><p></p>\r\n\r\n<p><br><!--[endif]--></p><br><p></p>',1),(353,78,0,0,20,0,1,1,1588657433,1656005382,'Brodmania!','<p></p>\r\n<h1><a name=\"_Toc28940422\">BRODMANN AREAS</a></h1>\r\n<p>The initial approach to understanding what part of the brain controlled what function was the legacy of Sir Charles Scott Sherrington (1857 – 1952) who found that different parts of the brain have different cellular architecture and control different functions and sensations. And in 1909, Korbinian Brodmann discovered that different regions of the brain had different cellular architecture, which he divided into numbered areas (today called “Brodmann areas”). &nbsp;He dissected the brain into 52\r\n    distinct regions. The cerebellar cortex is also subdivided into nearly a hundred areas. Currently, we know that each of these divisions is composed of characteristic neuronal circuits that consist of numerous neurons of diverse types interconnected with each other via synapses.</p>\r\n<h4>Sir Charles Scott Sherrington (Left) and Korbinian Brodmann (Right)</h4>\r\n<p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/K%20Brodmann.jpg\" alt=\"K Brodmann\" width=\"400\" height=\"594\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Sherrington.jpg\" alt=\"Sherrington\" width=\"400\" height=\"594\" class=\"atto_image_button_right\"><br></p>\r\n<h3><a name=\"_Toc28940423\">Original Cortical Atlas by Brodmann, Colorized Lateral View of the left hemisphere</a></h3>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><a name=\"_Toc28940423\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Brodmann%201.png\" alt=\"Brodmann areas\" width=\"800\" height=\"561\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></a></p>\r\n<h3><a name=\"_Toc28940424\">The 52 Brodmann areas of the brain</a></h3>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/brodmann%202.png\" alt=\"brodmann 2\" width=\"621\" height=\"277\"><br></a></p>\r\n<p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"></a></p>\r\n<h3><a name=\"_Toc28940424\">Brodmann area functions</a></h3>\r\n<a name=\"_Toc28940424\">\r\n    <p>8 sub-categories or groupings</p>\r\n    <p>Areas not in humans include: 14, 15, 27 and 49</p>\r\n    <p>1)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;executive functioning (9, 10, 44, 45, 46)</p>\r\n    <p>2)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;motor (4, 6, 8)</p>\r\n    <p>3)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;somatosensory (1, 2, 3, 5, 40, 31)</p>\r\n    <p>4)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;attention (7, 39)</p>\r\n    <p>5)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;visual (17, 18, 19, 15, 16)</p>\r\n    <p>6)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;memory (20, 21, 37, 28, 36)</p>\r\n    <p>7)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Emotional regulation (11, 38, 47, 13)</p>\r\n    <p>8)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sound (22, 41, 42)</p>\r\n    <p>9)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Primary Gustatory Area (43) Olfactory (34)</p>\r\n    <p>&nbsp;</p>\r\n</a>\r\n<h3><a name=\"_Toc28940425\">BAs 3, 1,and 2</a></h3>\r\n<h4><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"></a></h4>\r\n<p><a name=\"_Toc28940425\"></a></p>\r\n<p><a name=\"_Toc28940425\">This region is the primary somatosensotry cortex and is located at the post central gyrus of the brain (behind the Rolandic Fissure). It is divided into Brodmann areas 1, 2, 3a, and 3b. 3b is thought to be the primary somato-sensory cortex, and projects the outputs received from 3a to Brodmann areas 1 and 2. BA 3 mediates bodily sensations, because its wired to pathways bringing touch, pain, and temperature signals from the spinal cord, BA1 gets information on texture and Brodmann area 2 gets information on the size and the shape of an object. How cool is that?</a></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<h4>Brodmann areas 1, 2, and 3</h4><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA%20123.png\" alt=\"BA 123\" width=\"400\" height=\"375\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\" style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA123.png\" alt=\"BA 123\" width=\"625\" height=\"464\"><br></a></p>\r\n<p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"></a></p>\r\n<h3><a name=\"_Toc28940424\">BA 4</a></h3>\r\n<p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\">Brodmann area 4 is the primary motor cortex of the brain and is located at the pre central sulcus.&nbsp; It is considered the most posterior part of the frontal lobe. BA 4 controls movements of the body and sends many axons to the spinal cord, which in turn is wired to the muscles of the body.</a></p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA%204.png\" alt=\"BA 4\" width=\"498\" height=\"764\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"><br></a></p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\">This region is the region of the motor homunculus, which is mainly involved in controlling voluntary dynamic, kinesthetic movements. It is responsible for motor (finger, hand wrist, lip tongue, face, mouth, and lower limb movement, as well as eye movements and blinking and learning motor sequences. This area is also responsible for somatosensory perception, such as finger moving and touch , and kinesthetic perception of limb movements. This region as the main motor center of the brain, initiates the onset of movements, mainly produced by contraction of skeletal muscle. These impulses pass via the internal capsule to the spinothalamic tract in the spinal cord, both parts of the pyramidal system.&nbsp;<br><br><br><br></a><a name=\"_Toc28940427\" style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 2.143rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\">BA 5</a><br>\r\n<p>Brodmann area 5 is part of the parietal cortex, making up the superior parietal lobe as part of the post central gyrus. It is right behind Brodmann areas 1, 2, and 3, the primary somatosensory cortex. This area is involved with spatial orientation, and\r\n    receives a great deal of visual input as well as sensory input from one\'s hand. The postcentral gyrus is the principal somatic (of the body) sensory area. It is the end-point of sensory information from the skin (for touch, pain, pressure and temperature sensation) and from the spindle organs in the joints (for position sense).&nbsp;</p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA5.png\" alt=\"BA5\" width=\"479\" height=\"764\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></p>\r\n<p>Comprehensively, this area is responsible for generating actions, moving hands, moving limbs, sensing of our fingers, experiencing softness and vibration, moving tongue and mouth, swallowing, voluntary breathing, imagining actions, blinking and eye movements,\r\n    the mirror neuron system, and verbal encoding. The slow Beta rhythm of 13-14 hz was once used in neurofeedback training as a means of reducing seizure and adding calm to patients otherwise stricken with anxiety. The lack of this particular bandwidth in this region suggests a lack of proprioceptive awareness and potentially a more anxious state.</p>\r\n<p><br></p>\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc28940428\">BA 6</a></h2>\r\n<p>BA 6 are part of the frontal lobe and lies anterior to the motor cortex (Brodmann area 4). The functions of Brodmann area 6 are the premotor cortex are diverse and project directly to the&nbsp;spinal cord.&nbsp;This region, therefore, may play a role in the direct control of behavior, with a relative emphasis on the&nbsp;trunk muscles&nbsp;of the body. It may also play a role in planning movement, in the spatial guidance of movement, in the sensory guidance of movement, in understanding the actions of others, and in using abstract rules to perform specific&nbsp;tasks. This area is also responsible for intention.</p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Brodmann%20area%206.png\" alt=\"Brodmann area 6\" width=\"481\" height=\"764\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"></p>\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc28940429\"></a><a name=\"_Toc16242834\"></a><a name=\"_Toc525053908\">BA 7</a></h2>\r\n<p>Brodmann area 7 part of the parietal cortex of the brain and located posterior to the&nbsp;primary somatosensory cortex&nbsp;(Brodmann areas 3, 1 and 2), and superior to the&nbsp;occipital lobe. This region is believed to play a role in&nbsp;visuo-motor\r\n    coordination&nbsp;(e.g. tool use, reaching to grasp an object, handwriting, and visuospatial attention.&nbsp;(e.g., in reaching to grasp an object). In addition, area 7 along with&nbsp;area 5&nbsp;has been linked to a wide variety of high-level processing tasks, including activation in association with language use.<sup>[2]</sup>&nbsp;This function in language has been theorized to stem from how these two regions play a vital role in generating&nbsp;conscious&nbsp;constructs of objects in the world,\r\n    including self-reflection.</p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA7.png\" alt=\"Brodmann area 7\" width=\"480\" height=\"764\" style=\"font-size: 1rem;\" class=\"atto_image_button_text-bottom\"></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<h3><a name=\"_Toc28940430\">BA 8</a></h3>\r\n<p>Brodmann area 8 is anterior to Brodmann area 6 and is part of the frontal cortex. It includes the frontal eye fields (so that if one has a stroke on injury to the brain in this region, the eyes will drift towards the injury. It is involved in the management\r\n    of uncertainty, as well as the encoding of hope (a higher-order expectation positively correlated with uncertainty).</p>\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc28940431\"></a><br></h2><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA8.png\" alt=\"498\" width=\"480\" height=\"758\" style=\"font-size: 1rem;\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"></p>\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc525053909\">BA 9 and 10</a></h2>\r\n<p>Brodmann area 9 located in the pre-frontal cortex is responsible for executive memory, abstract thinking, intentionality and motivation, memory (working memory, spatial memory, short term memory, memory encoding and recognition, memory retrieval, forgetting),\r\n    motor skills, error detection, inductive reasoning, language skills (verbal fluency, metaphor comprehension, semantic categorization, verbal fluency, word-stem completion, generating sentences, etc). This area is underactive in individuals dealing\r\n    with bipolar depressive disorders. Left BA9 is responsible for empathy, processing pleasant and unpleasant emotional scenes, self-criticism, and attention to negative emotions.</p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA9.png\" alt=\"BA9\" width=\"480\" height=\"764\" class=\"atto_image_button_middle\"></p>\r\n<p>Right BA9 is responsible for attention to positive emotions, recognizing the emotions of others, attributing intention, suppressing sadness, theory of mind, working memory and spatial memory, as well as planning, calculation, and religiosity.</p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc28940432\"></a><a name=\"_Toc16242836\"></a><a name=\"_Toc525053910\">BA 10</a></h2>\r\n<p><a name=\"_Hlk28777532\">Brodmann area 10 is the anterior-most portion of the pre-frontal cortex. Overall, this area of the brain governs working memory; spatial memory; recognition; recall; intentional forgetting; recognizing emotions; calculation; pain; organization, maintenance, and implementation of intentions, source monitoring (who said what information), logical inference, hypometabolism in bipolar disorder (with paralimbic, insula, and cingulate hypermetabolism).</a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940433\" style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.715rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940433\" style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.715rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\">Brodmann area 10L</a><br></p>\r\n<p>Brodmann area 10L is responsible for self-reflection (about one\'s own abilities, traits and attitudes), Syntax, Metaphor, Lexical processing, Verbs, Self-reflection, Self-appraise, Inferences during reading,&nbsp; Forgiveability judgment (of a crime),\r\n    the integration of disparate relationships, dysfunction during remission in major depression, and the execution of delayed intentions.</p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA10.png\" alt=\"BA10\" width=\"498\" height=\"764\" class=\"atto_image_button_middle\"><br></p>\r\n<h3><a name=\"_Toc28940434\">Brodmann area 10 R</a></h3>\r\n<p><a name=\"_Hlk28777561\">Brodmann area 10 is responsible for recalling episodes, nonspeech sounds,&nbsp; familiar odors, reward vs conflict, risk vs benefit, and carrying out delayed intentions.</a></p>\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc28940435\"><br></a></h2>\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc28940435\" style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-size: 2.143rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\">BA 11</a><br></h2>\r\n\r\n<p><a name=\"_Hlk28777582\"></a><a name=\"_Hlk522463468\">BA11 is the\r\norbito-frontal cortex, right above the eye sockets. It governs personal and\r\nsocial behavior, emotion, and decision making</a>, the formation and retrieval of temporal context of episodic information. In addition, this part of the brain is responsible for e<span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">ncoding of new material, olfaction, nonspeech sounds, reward vs conflict.</span></p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA11.png\" alt=\"BA11\" width=\"498\" height=\"764\" class=\"atto_image_button_middle\"></span></p>\r\n\r\n<h4>BA11 L is responsible for</h4>\r\n\r\n<p></p>\r\n<ul>\r\n    <li>Unexpected outcomes </li>\r\n    <li>Idioms </li>\r\n    <li>Face-name recognition</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<p></p>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n<h4>BA 11R is responsible for</h4>\r\n\r\n<p></p>\r\n<ul>\r\n    <li><a name=\"_Hlk28777602\">Experience of happiness </a></li>\r\n    <li>Self-calm </li>\r\n    <li>Conscious perception of odors </li>\r\n    <li>Empathy (Judge others\' emotional states) and forgiveness judgments </li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<p><br></p>\r\n<p><a name=\"_Toc28940436\" style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 2.143rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\">BA 12</a><br></p>\r\n\r\n<p>Brodmann did not identify area 12 in humans, but it has been located as part of the orbito-frontal cortex, linked to taste perception, decision making and mental time travel. </p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">&nbsp;<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA12.png\" alt=\"BA12\" width=\"480\" height=\"764\" style=\"text-align: center; \" class=\"atto_image_button_middle\"></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"></p><br><br>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc28940437\">BA 13 and 16: The Insula</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p>The lateral ﬁssure, when “opened,” reveals some buried cortical tissue; this area is called the insula. This area is responsible for receiving taste sensations, relayed from the brainstem, and olfactory sensation.</p>\r\n\r\n<p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA13.png\" alt=\"BA13\" width=\"429\" height=\"287\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br>\r\n    <!--[endif]-->\r\n</p>\r\n\r\n<p><a name=\"_Hlk521876326\">The insula is also responsible for the processing of sensation,\r\nmotor movements and motor planning, verbal memory, motivational reasoning,\r\nvocal pitch, humor appreciation, risk taking, the expression of fear and\r\ndisgust. The right side is responsible for gating affect and impulse, including\r\nexplosivity, unreasonable responses, and the like. </a></p>\r\n\r\n<p>The anterior insula has been shown to play a part in the mental conditioning of pain perception—in a sense, the thought pattern associated with pain means that “the worse it gets the worse it gets.” The more the individual catastrophizes, ruminates, worries,\r\n    and focuses on the pain, the greater the expectation and manifestation of the pain.</p><p>The granular posterior insula processes tactile,\r\nauditory, and visual somatosensation. Craig (2004), found that there is\r\nexpansion of the right anterior insula and adjacent orbitofrontal cortices in\r\ntherapists and other folks who are empathically attuned.<br></p><p>The chemoarchitecture of the&nbsp;<b>insula</b>, especially the&nbsp;<b>anterior</b>, agranular&nbsp;<b>insula</b>, supports its role in motivation, emotion and addiction. The agranular&nbsp;<b>insula</b>&nbsp;receives strong&nbsp;<b>dopaminergic</b>&nbsp;innervation and contains a high density of D<sub>1</sub>&nbsp;<b>dopamine</b>&nbsp;receptors.<br></p>\r\n\r\n<p>The insular cortex is thought to connect to the sensory inputs from our internal organs. It serves interoception, the perception of information that arises from the center of the body and contributes to the felt sense of being. It also rules proprioception,\r\n    the sense of how one’s body feels.&nbsp; It also inhibits the firing of the amygdala. Early emotional trauma that interferes with the experience-dependent maturation of the insula and negatively impacts its role in generating an image of one’s physical\r\n    state (body image), a process that underlies the experiencing of basic emotions (Schore, 2003, p. 202).</p>\r\n\r\n<p>Craig (2004), found that there is expansion of the right anterior insula and adjacent orbitofrontal cortices in therapists and other folks who are empathically attuned.</p>\r\n<h5><a name=\"_Toc28940438\">BAs 14 and 15 do not exist in\r\nhumans.</a></h5><p><a name=\"_Toc28940438\"><br></a></p>\r\n\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc28940439\"></a><a name=\"_Toc16242837\"></a><a name=\"_Toc525053911\">BA 17, 18 and 19</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p>These regions are located at the occipital lobe and visual nerves run straight from the visual cortex to the visual association cortex. </p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA%2017%2018%2019.png\" alt=\"BA 17\" width=\"600\" height=\"212\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\">\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc28940440\"></a><a name=\"_Toc16242838\"></a><a name=\"_Toc525053912\">BA 17</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p>Brodmann area 17 is important in the perception of light intensity, distinguishing visual patterns, contours, colors and motion. It is involved in spatial orientation and transmits information to the dorsal stream and the ventral stream. The dorsal stream\r\n    is the “where pathway” which is associated with motion, representation of object locations, and control of the eyes and arms. The ventral stream is the “what pathway” and is associated with form recognition and object representation. It is associated\r\n    with the storage of long-term memory. This area is involved with the discrimination of shapes, textures, objects and faces.</p>\r\n\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc28940441\"></a><a name=\"_Toc16242839\"></a><a name=\"_Toc525053913\">BA 18</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p>Brodmann area 18 is important for the perception of light intensity, motion, and in the monitoring of color, shape, and visual patterns. Face-name association and word-face encoding are related to this area. If visual agnosia is present, the ability to\r\n    track visual motion patterns and discriminate finger gestures may be compromised, as may be orientation and selective attention (another possibility is that these things may be heightened).</p>\r\n\r\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc28940442\"></a><a name=\"_Toc16242840\"></a><a name=\"_Toc525053914\">BA 19</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p>Brodmann area 19 is the associative visual area. It is also used for light intensity and pattern detection. This region comprises parts of the lingual gyrus, the cuneus, the middle occipital gyrus, and the superior occipital gyrus. This area is important\r\n    in the spatial orientation of the stimulus.&nbsp; This area is also implicated in the focusing of attention and the phonological properties of written words. &nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<p>The cuneus is responsible for the evaluation of stimuli. It is also implicated in the recall of episodic memory and has a role in pain perception. It is important in attention comprehension and visual processing. (Choo et al., 2012; Choo et al., 2009).\r\n    It also plays a key role in the integration and synthesis of almost all sensory input.&nbsp; This area is also implicated in the distinction of self from other (Thompson &amp; Thompson, 2015). There is the possibility that one may feel anterograde\r\n    amnesia when it is damaged. This area, lastly, is involved in the identification of pain and has connections to the hippocampus, the posterior parietal cortex, the posterior parahippocampal gyrus, and the dorsal striatum (all implicated in memory)\r\n    (Thompson &amp; Thompson, 2015).</p>\r\n<p></p><h2><a name=\"_Toc525053914\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc525053914\">BA 20</a></h2><br>Brodmann area 20 is the inferior temporal lobe. This region is implicated in the higher levels of the ventral stream of visual processing and the representation of complex object features. It also contains the fusiform gyrus and is thought to be involved\r\n    in face perception. The most common symptom of inferior temporal lobe damage is&nbsp;visual agnosia, which involves impairment in the identification of familiar objects.&nbsp;\r\n<p></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA%2020.png\" alt=\"BA13\" width=\"476\" height=\"764\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\" style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"></p><h2><a name=\"_Toc28940444\"></a><a name=\"_Toc16242841\"></a><a name=\"_Toc525053915\">BA 21 and BA 22</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p>Brodmann areas 21 is over the temporal lobe, encompassing most of the lateral temporal cortex. This region is also referred to as the middle temporal cortex. This region is linked to sentence generation and word processing, specifically:</p>\r\n\r\n<p></p>\r\n<ul>\r\n    <li>Word generation </li>\r\n    <li>Monitor speech </li>\r\n    <li>Repeating words </li>\r\n    <li>Complex sounds </li>\r\n    <li>Deductive reasoning </li>\r\n    <li>Categorization </li>\r\n    <li>Observe motion </li>\r\n    <li>Complex sounds</li>\r\n    <li>Mirror neuron system</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<p></p>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">BA 21 is vital for long term memory, like facts and events. The structures in the medial temporal gyrus include the hippocampus, the amygdala, brainstems and other regions critical for memory formation and storage.</p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA21.png\" alt=\"BA21\" width=\"480\" height=\"764\" class=\"atto_image_button_middle\"></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p>\r\n\r\n<p>This area also holds the primary auditory cortex which is involved in high level auditory processing, and the processing of speech and words. This is an area where auditory signals from the cochlea reach the cerebral cortex and are processed by the primary\r\n    auditory cortex. The ventral part of the temporal cortices are involved in high-level visual processing of complex stimuli such as faces and scenes, and the anterior parts are for object perception and recognition. <sup></sup></p>\r\n\r\n<p>Damage in this areas would lead to disturbance of auditory sensation and perception, disturbance of selective attention of auditory and visual input, disorders of visual perception, impaired organization and categorization of verbal material, disturbance\r\n    of language comprehension, impaired long-term memory, and altered personality and affective behavior (Kolb &amp; Wilshaw, 1990).</p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc28940445\"></a><a name=\"_Toc16242843\"></a><a name=\"_Toc525053917\">BA\r\n22</a></h2>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><a name=\"_Toc525053917\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA22.png\" alt=\"BA22\" width=\"480\" height=\"701\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"><br></a></p>\r\n\r\n<p>Brodmann area 22 is also known as Wernicke’s area, which is essential for auditory working memory. Responsible for auditory perception and processing, this is responsible for high-level auditory processing. It is possible that damage to this area would\r\n    show a lack of discrimination for auditory detail, as well as difficulty in sentence generation. The left&nbsp;hemisphere&nbsp;helps with generation and understanding of individual words. On the right side of the brain it helps to discriminate&nbsp;pitch&nbsp;and\r\n    sound&nbsp;intensity, both of which are necessary to perceive&nbsp;melody&nbsp;and&nbsp;prosody. This part of the brain is active in&nbsp;processing language&nbsp;and is part of&nbsp;Wernicke\'s area. The other main region included in Wernicke\'s area\r\n    is&nbsp;Brodmann area 40, the&nbsp;supramarginal gyrus.</p>\r\n<h2>BA 23</h2>\r\n\r\n<p>Brodmann area 23 is part of the posterior cingulate cortex (PCC). This area is also known as&nbsp;ventral posterior cingulate area 23. <a name=\"_Hlk529261768\">The PCC is a highly connected node in the brain. This is a fundamental\r\narea of intersection for all of the networks in the brain to convene and converge\r\ninto what is called the rich club. </a>The name “rich club” is analogous to social systems, where highly central individuals— being rich in connections—form a highly interconnected club (Zhou &amp; Mondragon, 2004). Rich clubs are very similar to the\r\n    substation system in power grids. The substations are there to facilitate the transmission of power, disseminating loads at appropriate intervals to conjoining substations, allowing for the ease of transmission and the prevention of system failure.\r\n</p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA23.png\" alt=\"BA23\" width=\"498\" height=\"761\" class=\"atto_image_button_middle\"></p>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">The posterior cingulate cortex\r\nmediates the person\'s&nbsp;</span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">recognition &nbsp;of the existence\r\nin space. The precuneus is here and it may hold a good deal of a\r\nperson\'s autobiographical &nbsp;memory, and in that, her sense of identity.\r\nThis area is poorly infused with blood\r\nin fMRI studies of the DMN in patients with developmental trauma.\r\n</span><b style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">The precuneus &nbsp;is</b><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">\r\n</span><b style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">suggested\r\nto be the \'core node\' or \'hub\' of the default mode network, a web of&nbsp;</b><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">connections that are activated during\r\n\"resting consciousness\" in which people\r\ndo not engage intentionally in sensory or motor &nbsp;activity. This involvement in the default network &nbsp;is suggested to underlie its role in self-consciousness. It is one of the areas of the brain most deactivated\r\nduring slow-wave sleep and rapid eye\r\nmovement sleep and &nbsp;is involved in memory tasks, including episodic memory, source memory,\r\nand contextual associations. lastly, it is also, together &nbsp;with the dorsal premotor cortex, involved in visuospatial mental operations. &nbsp;While the\r\npremotor area engages in the mental\r\noperation, the precuneus aids monitoring the success of that operation in terms of internally represented visual images.</span></p><p><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"><br></span></p>\r\n<h2><span>BA24</span></h2>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"></span></p>\r\n<p>This Brodmann area occupies most of the&nbsp;anterior cingulate gyrus&nbsp;in an arc around the&nbsp;genu of the corpus callosum. Its outer border corresponds approximately to the&nbsp;cingulate sulcus.&nbsp;Broadmann area 24 is responsible for several\r\n    types of attention, arousal and inhibition of responses, and memory (like episodic and those related to odor and taste). It is involved in learning the value of actions (performance monitoring with adjustments made by orbital frontal cortex and the\r\n    dorso lateral pre frontal cortex, and detecting uncertainty. It play a major role in the Intention Network (9R, 47R, 20R, 38L, 24LR, 21LR, cerebellum), and verbal initiation. This region deals with mood swings, worry, self-other overlap and novelty\r\n    seeking personality. Francis Crick&nbsp;listed area 24 as the seat of free will because of its centrality in amotivational syndromes.</p>\r\n\r\n<p><br></p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA24.png\" alt=\"BA24\" width=\"481\" height=\"764\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></p>\r\n\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc28940448\">Anterior Cingulate Cortex</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p>&nbsp;<a name=\"_Hlk28777674\">The anterior cingulate cortex is a collar of\r\nwhite matter that surrounds the corpus callosum (the bundle of fibers that\r\nconnects the hemispheres of the brain. This is a major network hub of the\r\nbrain, responsible for the integration of network activity of all sorts.&nbsp; The anterior cingulate cortex is responsible\r\nfor much of our autonomic functioning, including heart rate, decision making,\r\nempathy, impulse control and emotion. &nbsp;</a></p>\r\n\r\n<p>Mood Disorders are often seen stemming from a dysregulation in this area and can manifest as depression, amotivational, and angry behaviors. The ACC can also be disorganized if one was predispositioned towards developmental trauma.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>Studies on meditators of various disciplines (notably transcendental meditation) show the anterior cingulate gyrus as activated by alpha when in deep states.&nbsp; This has been linked to a surge in dopamine, in honing of attention (and expertise in attention),\r\n    and in the ability to self-regulate easily. &nbsp;The ACC is disorganized in developmental trauma. Hyperreactivity of the anterior cingulate is also the brain signature of OCD (also in substance abuse).</p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;</span><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/ACC.jpg\" alt=\"BA24\" width=\"504\" height=\"490\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\" style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;</span></p><h2 style=\"text-align: left;\"><a name=\"_Toc525053920\"><br></a></h2><h2 style=\"text-align: left;\"><a name=\"_Toc28940449\"></a><a name=\"_Toc16242846\"></a><a name=\"_Toc525053920\">BA 25</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">This area of the brain, Brodmann area 25, is called the subgenual area because it is “below the knee” of the corpus callosum. This area is very deep in the midline cortex and has an very important link to the affect network. It is this area that is considered\r\n    to be of key intervention to people who have intractable depression. It is rich in serotonin transporters and is influential in many networks. This area governs personality and social behavior, such as moral reasoning and the evaluation of emotional\r\n    words. It influences the hypothalamus and the brain stem, which are involved in sleep and appetite, as well as the hippocampus, which is essential for memory formation and self-esteem. </p>\r\n\r\n<p></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA25.png\" alt=\"BA25\" width=\"498\" height=\"734\" class=\"atto_image_button_middle\" style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;\"></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">Irregular independent components at the subgenual anterior cingulate\r\n    affect the function of the brains’ Error Detection and Correction processes.&nbsp; This system which can be stuck in the “off position” as much as it can get stuck “on.” Usually if you are getting a lot of error codes (“that’s wrong,” “did you forget\r\n    to lock the door,” etc.) a significant marker here could signify an obsessive compulsive or oppositional defiant disorders. The anterior midline holds a model of what is going on in the world at the Subgenual Anterior Cingulate location. When that\r\n    spot is not working properly, you end up having error codes.</span></p><p></p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<h2 style=\"text-align: left;\"><a name=\"_Toc28940450\"></a><a name=\"_Toc16242847\"></a><a name=\"_Toc525053921\">BA 2</a>6</h2>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Brodmann area 26 is located at the isthmus of the posterior cingulate gyrus. Its role is not well defined.</p>\r\n<p></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp; &nbsp;</span><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA26.png\" alt=\"BA26\" width=\"498\" height=\"743\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\" style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;\"></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p></p>\r\n\r\n<h2 style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></h2><h2 style=\"text-align: left;\"><a name=\"_Toc28940451\">BAs 27 &amp; 28</a> </h2>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Brodmann area 27 is a &nbsp;cortical&nbsp;area that is a&nbsp;rostral&nbsp;part of the&nbsp;parahippocampal gyrus&nbsp;of the&nbsp;guenon. Brodmann areas 27, 28, 36 and 37 exist in the parahippocampal or fusiform gyrus of the ventral temporal lobe in\r\n    humans. These regions of the brain are responsible for representing space, such as those involving head-direction cells or grid cells, in areas 27 (the parasubicular cortex) and 28 (the ventral entorhinal cortex).</p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA27.png\" alt=\"BA27\" width=\"400\" height=\"606\" style=\"text-align: left;\" class=\"atto_image_button_left\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA28.png\" alt=\"BA26\" width=\"400\" height=\"609\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_right\" style=\"text-align: left;\">\r\n<h2></h2><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">&nbsp;<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA29.png\" alt=\"BA29\" width=\"495\" height=\"764\" style=\"text-align: center; \" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></p>\r\n<h2 style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></h2>\r\n<h2></h2>\r\n<h2 style=\"text-align: left;\"><a name=\"_Toc28940452\">BA 29</a></h2>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Brodmann area 29 is the medial area of the cortex that is part of the paralimbic cortex, involved in semantic associations (not conscious) and novelty. It is one of the less studied areas of the brain. &nbsp;It lies between the posterior cingulate are\r\n    the hippocampal areas and may be integral to the synthesization and integration of new information (i.e. memory).</p>\r\n<h2 style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></h2>\r\n<h2 style=\"text-align: left;\">BA 30</h2>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Brodmann area 30 is the retrosplenial region and is part of the cingulate cortex and cuneus. This area is implicated in the affect, memory, and default mode network. It has a role in attending to speech, listening to sentences and understanding the emotional\r\n    aspects of words. It has connection to limbic areas and is implicated in mood regulation. It is one of the central midline structures, is involved in the default mode network, and has a role in appraisal of one’s self (insight) (Thompson &amp; Thompson,\r\n    2015).\r\n</p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;</span><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA30.png\" alt=\"BA29\" width=\"400\" height=\"617\" style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n\r\n<h2 style=\"text-align: left;\">BA 31</h2>\r\n\r\n<p></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">Brodmann area 31, also known as&nbsp;dorsal posterior cingulate area 31, is a subdivision of the&nbsp;cytoarchitecturally&nbsp;defined&nbsp;cingulate region&nbsp;of the&nbsp;cerebral cortex. In the human it occupies portions of the&nbsp;posterior cingulate\r\n    gyrus&nbsp;and medial aspect of the&nbsp;parietal lobe. The region is typically discussed as having a unitary function because of a common pattern of relative deactivation observed during attentionally demanding tasks. One influential hypothesis is\r\n    that the posterior cingulate cortex has a central role in supporting internally-directed cognition. It is a key node in the default mode network and shows increased activity when individuals retrieve autobiographical memories or plan for the future,\r\n    as well as during unconstrained ‘rest’ when activity in the brain is mind wandering.</span></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;</span><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA%2031.png\" alt=\"BA31\" width=\"479\" height=\"761\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\" style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;\"></p>\r\n<h2 style=\"text-align: left;\">BA 32</h2>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">This area is also known i<span>n the&nbsp;human&nbsp;brain&nbsp;as the&nbsp;<span style=\"\">dorsal anterior cingulate area 32</span>,&nbsp;which controls self-monitoring of current emotional or somatic states, such as the anticipation and detection of\r\n    targets (indicating novelty), the influence of motor responses, and the cognitive control of action selection, </span>such as detecting errors when reward was expected for an action, but did not materialize.&nbsp; Involved in reward-based decision\r\n    making and activated by active distress.</p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center; \"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA32.png\" alt=\"BA32\" width=\"436\" height=\"681\" style=\"text-align: left;\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p></p>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">The ACC functions to inhibit the firing of the amygdala. It is often referred to as the transitional limbic cortex because it lies at the transition between the cortical and the subcortical regions. Joseph (1996) describes the ACC as “a supra-modal area\r\n    that is involved in the integration of motor tactile, autonomic, and emotional stimuli, as well as in the production of emotional sounds and the capacity to experience psychological pain and misery (p.243). In some abuse cases, this area has little\r\n    blood flow; no blood flow means little neuronal activation, which likely correlates directly to the sense of the self as a black hole—as non-existent.</p>\r\n\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left;\"><a name=\"_Toc28940456\"></a><a name=\"_Toc16242850\"></a><a name=\"_Toc525053924\">Brodmann area 32L</a> controls</h3>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">\r\n    <!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n    <!--[endif]-->Visual uncertainty </p>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">\r\n    <!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n    <!--[endif]-->Mood regulation </p>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">\r\n    <!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n    <!--[endif]-->Evaluate emotional words </p>\r\n\r\n<h4 style=\"text-align: left;\">\r\n    <!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n    <!--[endif]-->Brodmann area 32 Right controls</h4>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">\r\n    <!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n    <!--[endif]-->Sustain response set </p>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">\r\n    <!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n    <!--[endif]-->Identify pain </p>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">\r\n    <!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n    <!--[endif]-->Self-insight </p>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">\r\n    <!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n    <!--[endif]-->Reward </p>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">\r\n    <!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Reappraise negative emotions </p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<h2 style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></h2><h2 style=\"text-align: left;\"><a name=\"_Toc28940457\">BA 33</a> </h2>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Brodmann area 33 is <b>part of anterior cingulate cortex</b>&nbsp;is a subdivision of the&nbsp;cytoarchitecturally&nbsp;defined&nbsp;cingulate region&nbsp;of&nbsp;cerebral cortex. It is a narrow band located in the&nbsp;anterior cingulate gyrus&nbsp;adjacent\r\n    to thesupracallosal gyrus&nbsp;in the depth of the&nbsp;callosal sulcus, near the genu of the&nbsp;corpus callosum.</p><p style=\"text-align: center;\">&nbsp;<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA33.png\" alt=\"Ba33\" width=\"400\" height=\"624\" style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">&nbsp;</p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p>\r\n\r\n<h2 style=\"text-align: left;\"><a name=\"_Toc28940458\">BA 34</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Area 34 of Brodmann&nbsp;refers to a subdivision of the cytoarchitecturally defined&nbsp;hippocampal region&nbsp;of the&nbsp;human&nbsp;cerebral cortex. It is located in the&nbsp;entorhinal area&nbsp;on the&nbsp;medial&nbsp;aspect of the&nbsp;temporal\r\n    lobe.\r\n</p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center; \"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA34.png\" alt=\"BA34\" width=\"481\" height=\"764\" style=\"text-align: left;\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p></p>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left;\">BA 35</h3><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">Brodmann area 35 is </span><b style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">perirhinal area 35</b><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">. It is a subdivision of the&nbsp;cytoarchitecturally&nbsp;defined&nbsp;hippocampal region&nbsp;of the&nbsp;cerebral cortex. In the human it is located along the&nbsp;rhinal sulcus. Cytoarchitectually\r\nit is bounded medially by the&nbsp;entorhinal area 28&nbsp;and laterally by the&nbsp;ectorhinal area 36.</span></p><p></p>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">The hippocampus is responsible for synthesizing short term into long term memory, episodic memory, autonomic processes, response inhibition, and spatial cognition. Hippocampus damage can lead to anxiety disorders and an inability to suppress responses\r\n    that have been conditioned. It also encodes emotional responses from the amygdala. Damage to the hippocampus will result in the inability to form new memories. This is also an area that is responsible for conflict detection and approach-avoidance\r\n    behaviors, linking it to some anxiety conditions.\r\n</p>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">There are two hippocampi—one for each hemisphere. Each has a different role in memory. The RH hippocampus records memory in spatial and temporal fields and the LH holds verbal memory. The RH hippocampus is central to implicit, non verbal memory—in a sense,\r\n    unremembered memory. When RH memory begins to return, it is often in felt experiences and in pictures and in spatial contexts. The LH hippocampus is involved in declarative or explicit memory, also called semantic memory (i.e. related to words), and\r\n    gives us the ability to used words to communicate emotional states. Sustained stress and high levels of circulating cortisol and other stress hormones (i.e. glucocorticoids) lead to a smaller hippocampus, structurally, and as a result, to impaired\r\n    memory. “ A likely explanation is that the shrinkage in the hippocampus is due to the effects of heightened cortisol, which is known to be toxic to the hippocampus” (van der Kolk, 2007, p. 233).</p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center; \"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA%2035.png\" alt=\"BA 35\" width=\"480\" height=\"763\" style=\"text-align: left;\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p></p>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">The hippocampus is responsible for synthesizing short term into long term memory, episodic memory, autonomic processes, response inhibition, and spatial cognition. Hippocampus damage can lead to anxiety disorders and an inability to suppress responses\r\n    that have been conditioned. It also encodes emotional responses from the amygdala. Damage to the hippocampus will result in the inability to form new memories. This is also an area that is responsible for conflict detection and approach-avoidance\r\n    behaviors, linking it to some anxiety conditions. The flow of information in the hippocampus is mostly unidirectional, or so called feed forward&nbsp; (Buszaki. 70).</p>\r\n\r\n<h2 style=\"text-align: left;\"><a name=\"_Toc28940460\"></a><a name=\"_Toc16242851\"></a><a name=\"_Toc525053925\">BA 36 &amp; 37</a></h2>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center; \"><a name=\"_Toc525053925\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Ba36.png\" alt=\"BA36\" width=\"480\" height=\"727\" style=\"text-align: left;\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></a></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><a name=\"_Toc525053925\"><br></a></p><p></p>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Ectorhinal area 36 is a subdivision of the cytoarchitecturally defined temporal region of cerebral cortex. With its medial boundary corresponding approximately to the rhinal sulcus it is located primarily in the fusiform gyrus, which is responsible for\r\n    the recognition of faces. Cytoarchitecturally it is bounded laterally and caudally by the inferior temporal area 20, medially by the perirhinal area 35 and rostrally by the temporopolar area 38</p>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Area 36 (the lateral perirhinal cortex) is crucial for various types of associative learning. Earlier human neuroimaging studies have also indicated that faces, bodies and visual word forms are represented in different regions of area 37 in the posterior\r\n    fusiform gyrus. Recent neuroimaging studies in humans have shown substantial functional differentiation between face-related regions in areas 37 and 36, which is similar to that seen in macaque monkeys, as shown through their face patches. This implies\r\n    the crucial involvement of both areas in face processing. </p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA37.png\" alt=\"BA37\" width=\"400\" height=\"625\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\" style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n\r\n<h2 style=\"text-align: left;\"><a name=\"_Toc28940462\">BA38</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">BA 38 is part of the temporal cortex. The temporal pole is a paralimbic region involved in high level semantic representation and socio-emotional processing. The&nbsp;uncinate fasciculus&nbsp;provides a direct bidirectional path to the orbitofrontal cortex,\r\n    allowing mnemonic representations stored in the temporal pole to bias decision making in the frontal lobe. The temporal pole appears to be a convergence zone where semantic memories that are stored in the ventral anterior temporal lobe are imbued\r\n    with emotional significance and personal meaning.&nbsp; In addition, concepts of individual people, abstracted away from the perceptual representations, are stored in a “face patch” in the temporal pole. This face patch is found in both non-human\r\n    primates and humans.&nbsp;&nbsp;This relates to early work showing that damage to the temporal pole can cause an amnestic prosopanosia in which knowledge of familiar people is lost.&nbsp; Bilateral damage to the temporal poles, though rare, can cause\r\n    dramatic changes in personality.&nbsp;Kluver-Bucy syndrome&nbsp;involves damage to the greater temporal pole as well as the&nbsp;amygdala. In this disorder, individuals demonstrate fearlessness, hyper sexuality, and hyper orality.</p>\r\n\r\n<p></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span style=\"font-size: 10.5px; vertical-align: super;\">&nbsp;</span></p><sup><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA38.png\" alt=\"BA38\" width=\"500\" height=\"787\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\" style=\"vertical-align: super;\"></p></sup><p></p>\r\n<h2 style=\"text-align: left;\"><a name=\"_Toc28940463\">BA 39</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">BA39 encompasses the&nbsp;angular gyrus, lying near to the junction of&nbsp;temporal,&nbsp;occipital&nbsp;and&nbsp;parietal lobes. This region is thought to have correlation with the visual representation of words and phonemes, damage to Brodmann area\r\n    39 may result in dyslexia&nbsp;or in semantic&nbsp;aphasia.&nbsp;Albert Einstein&nbsp;had more glia in this region than the normal person and it has been hypothesized this is why he had remarkable mathematical genius.</p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<h2 style=\"text-align: left;\"><a name=\"_Toc28940464\">BA 40</a> </h2>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Brodmann area 40 is located the inferior parietal lobule. This region of the brain is responsible for: attention to phonemes, categorization, verbal creativity, aversiveness, emotional working memory, conscious recollection, visual grasping, gesture imitation,\r\n    visuomotor planning, intention/conflict detection, deduction, empathy, and goals.</p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">&nbsp;<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA40.png\" alt=\"BA40\" width=\"480\" height=\"720\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></p>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Brodmann area 40 is responsible for attendance to calculation, phonemes, categorization, verbal creativity, aversiveness, emotional working memory, conscious recollection, visual grasping, gesture imitation, visuomotor planning, Repetitive passive movements,\r\n    intention/conflict detection, deduction, empathy , music performance, goals, imitation of novel actions.</p>\r\n<h2 style=\"text-align: left;\"><a name=\"_Toc28940465\"></a><br></h2>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center; \"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/ba41.png\" alt=\"ba41\" width=\"480\" height=\"743\" style=\"text-align: left;\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></p>\r\n<h2 style=\"text-align: left;\"><a name=\"_Toc525053928\">BA 41, 42</a></h2>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Brodmann areas 41, and 42 are all parts of the auditory cortex. In extreme cases, damage here will show loss in the conscious awareness of sound, 41 and 42 are areas that comprise Herschel’s gyrus, an area that is known for picking up and recognizing\r\n    the paralinguistics of speech (including prosody, tone, gait, tenor, timbre, tempo, volume, and patterns). This area is responsible for how we decode what the other is saying. Herschl’s gyrus and has a direct corollary to the densely packed cochlear\r\n    nucleus, which is responsible for the processing of sounds. In this region of the brain words and sounds are decoded through the heteromodal association cortex and are given meaning through the angular gyrus, where they are then related to other words\r\n    and meanings encountered in the past.</p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/ba42.png\" alt=\"ba41\" width=\"487\" height=\"784\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\" style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left;\">BA 43</h3>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Brodmann Area 43 responds to pressure on the eardrum &nbsp;and to oral intake (eating and drinking). Because eating and drinking change pressure on the middle ear and eardrum, Brodmann Area 43 may be the primary somatosensory cortex of the eardrum.</p>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Additionally, Brodmann Area 43 was found to be functionally active in a study differentiating the roles of the left-frontal and right-cerebellar regions during semantic analysis. Brodmann Area 43 showed a major increase in functional activation by fMRI,\r\n    when study participants &nbsp;were asked to complete tasks which involved the selection of a verbal response from many possible responses, rather than a sustained search for a verbal response from few possible responses.\r\n</p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">&nbsp;<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/ba43.png\" alt=\"bA43\" width=\"500\" height=\"764\" style=\"text-align: center; \" class=\"atto_image_button_middle\"></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><h3 style=\"text-align: left;\"><a name=\"_Toc28940468\"><br></a></h3><h3 style=\"text-align: left;\"><a name=\"_Toc28940468\">BA 44 and 45</a></h3>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><a name=\"_Hlk26903308\">Brodmann\r\nareas 44 and 45 are the pars opercularis and the pars triangularis, respectively.\r\nThese areas are part of Broca’s area and cover the insula. Broca’s area was\r\ndiscovered in a patient who was unable to produce speech. This area is\r\nimportance for semantics, phonetics, as well as verbal understanding, speech\r\narticulation, grammatical processing, and speech fluency. Boiled down, this is\r\nthe area that enables us to speak. When compromised, we may see difficulty\r\nproducing speech, stuttering, and other symptoms of difficulty producing words.\r\nThis area is also important for internal speech and the internal rehearsal of\r\ninformation. </a></p>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">The pars traingularis (Brodmann area 45) is important in memory networks, particularly episodic, syntactic, semantic, and declarative memory encoding. When reading aloud, this area allows for the decoding and correct pronunciation of speech&nbsp; (Thompson\r\n    &amp; Thompson, 2015, p. 51-52).</p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA%2044%20and%2045.png\" alt=\"BA 44 \" width=\"538\" height=\"700\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><br></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<h2 style=\"text-align: left;\"><a name=\"_Toc28940469\"></a><a name=\"_Toc16242856\"></a><a name=\"_Toc525053930\">BA 46</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Brodmannn area 46 is intimately connected to areas 8 and 9, all the executive regions of the brain.&nbsp; These are the areas of the prefrontal dorsolateral cortex, which are implicated in making judgments, planning, monitoring, revising, sustaining attention,\r\n    working memory, inhibition of responses, willed actions and verbal and episodic memory retrieval.&nbsp; Mirror neurons are located here. Spatial information is also processed here (Thompson &amp; Thompson, 2015).</p>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center; \">&nbsp;<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA46.png\" alt=\"BA46\" width=\"480\" height=\"753\" style=\"text-align: center; \" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center; \"><br></p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center; \"><br></p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><a name=\"_Toc525053931\" style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 2.143rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\">BA 47</a><br></p>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Brodmann area 47 is part of the frontal cortex that curves from the lateral surface of the brain to into the orbital frontal cortex. This area is implicated in deductive reasoning, language and emotions. It is located in the pre-frontal cortex near Brodmann\r\n    areas 9 and 10, parallel to Brodmann area 11.&nbsp; This area is part of the executive network and is important in processing syntax and semantics of language (oral and sign language) categorization and aspects of language and speech. It is also important\r\n    for episodic and working memory. It is one of the key areas for deductive reasoning and is important in making inferences, as well as monitoring actions and incoming information and behavior. Lastly, it is important in the temporal coherence of processing\r\n    music (Thompson &amp; Thompson, 2015, p. 54).\r\n    </p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA47.png\" alt=\"BA47\" width=\"400\" height=\"603\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\" style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"></p>\r\n<p></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><br></p>\r\n<p></p>',1),(354,79,0,355,20,0,1,1,1588712741,1615349485,'History, Anatomy and Function','<p></p><p>The discovery\r\nof neurotransmitters and the firing of the EEG were different discoveries. Hans\r\nBerger was not the first electroencephalographer (Caton was), but Berger was\r\nthe first to dedicate time to studying the firing of the brain. Berger was\r\nexcessively self-conscious about his initial findings on EEG, so much so that\r\nhe undertook 5 years of testing and surveying the results of his studies on EEG\r\nbefore he released it to the public in report form.&nbsp;</p><h3>Richard Caton (Left) and Hans Berger (Right)</h3><p>&nbsp;<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/berger.jpeg\" alt=\"berger\" width=\"444\" height=\"333\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/caton.jpg\" alt=\"caton\" width=\"250\" height=\"319\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"></p>\r\n\r\n<p><br></p><h3>Otto Loewi</h3><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Loewi.jpg\" alt=\"loewi\" width=\"180\" height=\"255\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><p>Otto Loewi was the\r\nfirst neuroscientist to prove that neurotransmistters are released in the\r\njunction (synapse) between the vagus nerve and the heart muscle. He received a\r\nNobel Prize with Henry Hallett Dale from Cambridge England in 1936 for their\r\ndiscoveries. Loewi wrote:</p>\r\n\r\n<p><i>The night\r\nbefore Easter Sunday of that year, I awoke, turned on the light, and jotted\r\ndown a few notes on a tiny slip of thin paper. Then I fell asleep again. It\r\noccurred to me at six o’clock in the morning that I had written down something\r\nmost important, but I was unable to decipher the scrawl. The next night, at\r\nthree o’clock, the idea returned. It was the experiment to determine whether or\r\nnot the hypothesis of chemical transmission that I had thought about years ago\r\nwas correct. I got up immediately, went of&nbsp;\r\nthe laboratory, and performed a simple experiment on a frog heart\r\naccording to the nocturnal design.</i> (Loewi, 1960, 15).</p><h2><a name=\"_Toc3535192\"><br></a></h2><h3><a name=\"_Toc3535192\">Ramon y Cajal and The Discovery of the Neuron</a></h3><p><a name=\"_Toc3535192\">The neuron is considered to be the fundamental structural and functional unit of the nervous\r\nsystem. While other organs of the body were fairly well understood morphologically during the\r\nlast few centuries, the understanding of what the neuron \"looks like\" was not well known until\r\nearly 1900. Before this time scientists could not \"see\" the structure of the brain and it appeared as\r\na tangled net of various fibers. In fact, several theories until the late 1800s held that the brain was\r\ncomposed of a series of tiny tubes through which certain secretions flowed. Ill health was\r\nthought to be the result of an imbalance of the flow of these secretions through these tubes.&nbsp;</a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc3535192\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/cajal.png\" alt=\"Cajal\" width=\"300\" height=\"370\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\">Who first identified the structure of the neuron?\r\nDuring the early years of 1900, a well known Spanish anatomist Santiago Ramon\r\ny Cajal changed all that. Using a new staining method, silver chromate, recently\r\ndeveloped by his Italian colleague, Camillo Golgi, Cajal was able to identify the\r\nstructure and boundaries of individual neurons. It became evident to him that the\r\nbrain was composed of individual cells of varying morphologies and that these\r\ncells were unique in several ways. First, neurons are not necessarily spherical\r\nshaped as are cells of other body tissue. Indeed, there are several different forms\r\nor morphologies to the neuronal cell structure. Second, whatever the form of the neuron, Cajal\r\nnoted that each neuron consisted of a cell body and three other morphologically defined areas.<br></a></p><h2><a name=\"_Toc3535192\" style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-size: 2.143rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\">Intricate Neuroanatomy: The Neuron</a><br></h2>\r\n\r\n<p>The major\r\ncell of the central nervous system is the <b><u>neuron</u></b>. Neurons are\r\npretty much the most basic unit of the brain, as well as the most complicated\r\ncell in the human body. The brain has about 100 billion neurons with an\r\nestimated 200 trillion connections between them (Buszaki, 2006) or 50 dendrites per neuron. A neuron has a\r\ncell body (also called soma, or perikaryon); dendrites, which are the branched<b>&nbsp; </b>projections of a neuron that act to conduct the electrical\r\nstimulation received from other neural cells to the cell body, or soma, of the\r\nneuron from which the dendrites project. Dendrites extend a short\r\ndistance from the soma (each of them having spines that absorb\r\nneurotransmitter); and an axon (also called fiber), which connects one neuron\r\nwith others. The fibrous axons occupy more space in the brain than neurons,\r\ndendrites, and spines combined. In short, axons take information away from the cell (longer axons are covered in the myelin sheath, which provides faster transmission.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>Neuronal\r\nmembranes are specialized for electro-chemical events, the firing of action\r\npotentials and the release/reception of neurostransmitters. This is how neurons\r\ncommunicate to one another. The dendrites and cell bodies of the neurons\r\nreceive information, and the axons transmit the ﬁring pattern of the cell to\r\nthe next neuron. Generally, each neuron receives synaptic input from hundreds\r\nor perhaps thousands of other neurons, and its axon distributes this\r\ninformation via collaterals (branches) to hundreds of other neurons. The\r\noverwhelming majority of neurons are used for the processing of information and\r\nare called interneurons. The more dramatic the level of processing, the more\r\nthe interneurons are involved.</p><p><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/neuron.png\" alt=\"Neuron\" width=\"432\" height=\"330\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></p>\r\n\r\n<p>Neurons\r\nprefer to take the shortest paths with their surrounding peers. They receive\r\nmost of their information from their immediate neighbors and act locally (p.\r\n45). In order to communicate with distant neurons, it requires the use of\r\ncostly connections metabolic resources and connections to transporting\r\nelectrical pulses over long distances (Buzsaki, 2006).</p><h3><span style=\"font-size: 1.715rem;\"><br></span></h3><h3><span style=\"font-size: 1.715rem;\">Anatomy of a Neuron</span><br></h3><p>Watch this video on the anatomy of a neuron:</p><p><a href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HZh0A-lWSmY\">neuron</a><br></p><p></p><p>Communication\r\nbetween neurons occurs almost exclusively at specialized junctions called <b>&nbsp;<u>synapse</u>s</b>,\r\nusing biological molecules called <b><u>neurotransmitters</u></b>. Neurotransmitters\r\nmodify ion movements across the neuronal membranes of the synapse and alter\r\nneurotransmission (with each action potential neurotransmitters travel across\r\nthe synaptic gap) — neurotransmitters can be excitatory or inhibitory in their\r\naction, or modulate synaptic excitability. The post-synaptic neuron will modify\r\nits ﬁring pattern depending on the summative effect of all the synapses acting\r\nupon it at any moment in time. The action of neurotransmitters depends also on\r\nthe speciﬁc receptor type; there is an ever-increasing number of receptor\r\nsubtypes allowing for even more complexity of information processing within the\r\nCNS. Drugs are being designed to act on those receptors for therapeutic\r\npurposes.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>&nbsp;Here is a short video of the function of the synapse:</p><p><a href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WhowH0kb7n0\">synapse</a><br></p><p>And here is a video with a little more info:</p><p><a href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i-XwPjN3ZtI\">synapse</a><br></p><p><br></p><h3>Anatomy of an Axon</h3><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/axon.png\" alt=\"axon\" width=\"670\" height=\"374\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></p><p>When\r\nmeasuring EEG—we are measuring “action potentials” along the axon. An action\r\npotential is a firing—bam!—that is the swapping of potassium and sodium along\r\nthe border of the axon. Much of the substance of the brain consists of <b>a<u>xons</u></b>, also called ﬁbers, which\r\nconnect one part of the brain with other areas. Low frequency oscillations\r\n(i.e., delta and theta) coordinate long-range communications, between lobes of\r\nthe brain (von Stein, Chiang, &amp; Konig, 2000). </p>\r\n\r\n<p>This stage of\r\nwiring the brain happens in utero, with the long connections being the most\r\nfundamental (Grubin, 2011). It is these long fibrous white matter tracks that\r\ntheta and delta traverse. Many of the axons are myelinated by oligodendrocites\r\n(a type of glial cell), this “insulation,”&nbsp;\r\nserve to increase the speed of axonal conduction; the thicker the <b>myelin sheath</b>, the faster the\r\nconduction. Axons originating from one area (cortex or nucleus) and destined\r\nfor another area usually group together and form a tract, also called a pathway\r\n(or fasciculus).</p><p><br></p>\r\n\r\n<h3>&nbsp;A Neuron and an Axon</h3><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Neuron%20and%20Axon.png\" alt=\"Neuron and Axon\" width=\"679\" height=\"419\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"></p><p></p><p></p><p>Moreover,\r\nthere are even more numerous glial cells and finely branch blood vessels that\r\nsupport and nourish the neurons. The neuronal circuits in each subdivision constitute\r\nlocal networks, which are further integrated to form global neural systems\r\nacross subdivisions or divisions. Current neuroscience is based on the belief\r\nthat these networks and systems operate through specific mechanisms and play\r\nspecific functional roles in the living body.</p>\r\n\r\n<p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p>\r\n\r\n<p>&nbsp;</p><h3><b>What are neurotransmitters and how do they work? </b></h3>\r\n\r\n<p>Neurotransmitter substances are biochemical enzymes which,\r\nwhen released from the presynaptic cell, cross the synaptic cleft and bind with\r\nreceptors on the membrane of the post synaptic cell.&nbsp;</p><p>Many neurotransmitter\r\nsubstances have been identified in the CNS and are divided into two general\r\nclasses:&nbsp;</p><p>1. Substances of low molecular weight such as: noradrenaline,\r\ndopamine, serotonin, 5HTP, histamine, glutamate, GABA, glycine&nbsp;</p><p>2. Neuroactive\r\npeptides (which have large molecular weight): i.e. vasopressin, substance P,\r\nsomatostatin. </p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/neurotransmitters%201.png\" alt=\"Neurotransmitters\" width=\"900\" height=\"545\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></p>\r\n\r\n<p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/neurotransmitters%202.png\" alt=\"neurotransmitters 2\" width=\"900\" height=\"772\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/neurotransmitters%203.png\" alt=\"neurotreanmitters 3\" width=\"900\" height=\"277\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p>All transmitter substances meet certain criteria. They must\r\nbe able to:</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->1)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->be synthesized in the pre-synaptic neuron </p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->2)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->be stored in vesicles in the pre-synaptic neuron\r\n</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->3)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->be released by neuronal activity bind with\r\nreceptors on the post synaptic cell </p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->4)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->be removed from the synaptic cleft </p>\r\n\r\n<p>After propagation, the action potential proceeds to the\r\nterminal end of the axon. Depolarization of the terminal membrane causes\r\nchanges in voltage gated channels that allow calcium to enter. As Ca+ enters\r\nthe cell, synaptic vesicles containing transmitter substance migrate toward the\r\ncell membrane where they fuse with the membrane. The contents of the vesicle then\r\nreleases thousands of transmitter molecules into the extracellular synaptic\r\ncleft.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>&nbsp;Transmitter molecules\r\ncross the cleft and bind receptors on the post synaptic membrane in a\r\n\"lock and key\" fashion producing changes which ultimately act to\r\nexcite or inhibit the cell. Whether the post synaptic cell moves toward\r\nthreshold (excitatory) or away from threshold (inhibitory) is a function of\r\ntransmitter action on the receptor of the post synaptic membrane. Some\r\ntransmitter substances such as glutamate cause excitatory changes, i.e. they\r\nmove the resting membrane potential toward threshold. Such a synaptic potential\r\nis referred to as an excitatory post synaptic potential or EPSP. Other\r\ntransmitters such as GABA and dopamine are inhibitory moving the Resting\r\nMembrane Potentials away from threshold and this post synaptic potential is\r\ncalled an IPSP. However, the action of a specific chemical transmitter\r\nsubstance on the post synaptic membrane does not depend on the molecular\r\nmake-up of the transmitter, but rather on the properties of the receptor with\r\nwhich the transmitter binds. </p>\r\n\r\nMore about\r\nneurotransmitters: Acetylcholinestrase (ACh-ase) Once in the synaptic cleft the\r\ntransmitter signaling must be turned \"off\' or stopped. This is carried out\r\nby an enzyme that is present in the synaptic space. In the case of\r\nacetylcholine, this enzyme is called acetylcholinesterase (ACh- ase). ACh -ase\r\nacts to catalyze the acetylcholine and breaks it into acetate and choline which\r\nis reabsorbed into the presynaptic cell for re- synthesis. This series of\r\nevents is demonstrated using the transmitter substance acetylcholine as a\r\nmodel. Many transmitters work in the same way as acetylcholine. However, a\r\nsecond type of neural transmission may occur in some synapses. This is by way\r\nof so-called second messenger transmission. In second messenger transmission a\r\ntransmitter substance binds with a receptor that then causes metabolic activity\r\ninside the cell to produce indirect changes in ionic conductances and thus\r\nvoltage changes. Second messenger activation usually lasts longer than that of\r\nchemically gated transmission. Inhibition in neural signaling may also be\r\nproduced before the action potential reaches the presynaptic terminal. Specific\r\nto axo-axonic synapses, presynaptic inhibition occurs when the excitatory\r\naction of a presynaptic neuron produces changes in a post synaptic axon to the\r\nextent that it inhibits release of the transmitter.<p></p>\r\n\r\n<h2><br></h2><br><p></p><p></p>',1),(355,79,354,356,20,0,1,1,1588818115,1596822752,'Blood Supply, Glia, and Ventricles','<p></p><h2><a name=\"_Toc28940476\">Blood Supply</a></h2><p>&nbsp;The blood supply to the brain takes up to 20% of the total oxygen consumption of the body. A lack of oxygen to the brain results in ischemia, hypoxia (partial restriction of oxygen) and anoxia (total deprivation of oxygen to the brain). In the image of the arterial supply of blood to the central nervous system are the larger pair of the left and right carotid artery and the smaller pair of the vertebral arteries.</p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;</span><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Vertebral%20Arteries.png\" alt=\"Vertebral Arteries\" width=\"600\" height=\"352\" class=\"atto_image_button_middle\" style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;\"><br><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: left;\"><br></span></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">This is a great video on blood flow in the brain:</span></p><p></p><p></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><a href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pl2tYwx7o5w\">Blood Flow</a><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\">And here is a video on the up-close dynamics of blood flow in the brain:&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9hhfM7rQHiM\">Blood Flow Part 2</a></p><p></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\">The left and right carotid\r\narteries bifurcate at the fourth vertebrae and form the internal\r\ncarotid &nbsp;arteries,\r\nentering the brain through\r\nthe carotid canal of the temporal bone. These internal&nbsp;<span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">carotid &nbsp;arteries form the circle\r\nof Willis, as well as the ophthalmic arteries (supplies\r\nthe structures of the orbit), the posterior communicating artery (the \"connecting vessel: in\r\nthe circle of willis), the anterior choroidal\r\nartery (supplies the areas of the brain\r\nimportant for&nbsp;</span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">motor &nbsp;control and vision, and the anterior &nbsp;cerebral artery (which supplies\r\nthe cerebrum).</span></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p></p><h3 style=\"text-align: left;\">Carotid Canal</h3><p></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \">&nbsp;<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Carotid%20Canal.png\" alt=\"Carotid Canal\" width=\"474\" height=\"398\" style=\"text-align: center; \" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></p><h2 style=\"text-align: center; \"><br></h2><h2 style=\"text-align: left;\"><a name=\"_Toc28940477\" style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-size: 2.143rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\">Glia</a><br></h2>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Other than neurons,\r\nthe other major\r\ncells of the central nervous\r\nsystem are glia, in fact, glial cells\r\nare the most abundant cells in the central nervous\r\nsystem. Glia is Latin for \"glue/\'&nbsp; and glia\r\nsurround the neurons and provide support and insulation for them. The extensive brain vessel\r\nsystem needs the support&nbsp; of glial cells because glia feed neurons\r\nand the brain is supplied\r\nby the highest density of blood vessels\r\nin the entire body.</p>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Glia can be divided into two classes, macroglia and microglia.&nbsp;</p><p style=\"text-align: left;\">1) Microglia are glial cells that are scavengers of the central nervous\r\nsystem, removing pathogens, debris, bacteira, damaged cells, and other\r\nforeign substances.&nbsp; They have a spider-like shape.</p><p style=\"text-align: left;\">The other types of glial cells are macroglia, including:</p><p style=\"text-align: left;\">1) <b>Astrocytes</b>, which are involved in supportive\r\n&nbsp;structural and metabolic &nbsp;events, as well as repairing damaged\r\ncells, regulating neuronal communication and maintaining the blood-brain barrier (keeping blood from entering the brain).&nbsp;</p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><ul><li><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">They are the most abundant&nbsp;</span></li><li><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">Numerous star-shaped projections that anchor\r\nneurons to their\r\ncapillaries (nutrient supply)&nbsp;</span></li><li><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">Form a living barrier\r\n(blood-brain barrier) between\r\ncapillaries and neurons\r\nto protect against\r\nharmful substances in\r\nthe blood.&nbsp;</span></li><li><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">Help control the\r\nchemical environment</span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;</span></li></ul><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">2) <b>Oligodendrocytes,</b> which are responsible for the formation\r\nand maintenance &nbsp;of the <span><u>myelin sheath</u></span> that ensheaths\r\nthe axons, allowing for efficient communication\r\nbetween &nbsp;neurons,&nbsp;</span></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">3) <b>Schwann cells</b>,\r\nwhich are the myelinating glia of the spinal\r\ncord and peripheral nervous system,&nbsp;</span></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">4) <b>Ependymal cells</b>, which are found in the walls of the ventricles,\r\nwhere they produce\r\ncerebrospinal fluid; their cilia circulates the CSF around the brain removing waste products, washing\r\nit over at night, and protecting the brain from injury&nbsp;</span></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">5) <b>Satellite cells</b>, which are also part of the peripheral nervous system and playing\r\nboth a supportive and protective role of regulating the neural environmental for the peripheral nerves and 6) radial glia, which are fundamental for neurogenesis and neural migration (the movement of\r\nnew neurons through the brain).</span><br></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><h3 style=\"text-align: left;\">Types of Glia</h3><p></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \">&nbsp;<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Glia.png\" alt=\"Glia\" width=\"474\" height=\"374\" style=\"text-align: center; \" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \">In his book, \"The Other Brain,\" R. Douglas Fields talks all about glia. It\'s a pretty fascinating read, surprisingly.&nbsp; I recommend it.</p><p style=\"text-align: center; \">&nbsp;<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/The%20Other%20Brain.jpg\" alt=\"The Other Brain\" width=\"300\" height=\"453\" style=\"text-align: center; \" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><br></p><p></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><div><h2 style=\"text-align: left;\"><a name=\"_Toc28940478\">Ventricles</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center; \">&nbsp;<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/ventricles.png\" alt=\"ventricles\" width=\"549\" height=\"331\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"></p>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">The ventricles are a network of cavities that are filled with cerebrospinal fluid. The main role\r\n&nbsp;of the &nbsp;ventricles is\r\nthe creation and circulation of the cerebrospinal fluid; this clear, colorless liquid surrounds and\r\nprotects the brain, suspending it in fluid. This fluid removes toxins\r\n&nbsp;and washes over the brain. There are the two C-shaped lateral ventricles, the third ventricle,\r\nwhich &nbsp;is formed when the &nbsp;diencephalon is formed in\r\nthe first &nbsp;5 weeks of life, the cerebral aqueduct (which connects the third and the fourth ventricles), the intraventricular foramen and the fourth ventricle. In the third ventricle is a connection of the thalami, called the interthalamic\r\nadhesion. The fourth ventricle&nbsp; is shaped like a tent &nbsp;and lives between\r\nthe brainstem and the cerebellum. The cerebrospinal fluid leaves the brain through\r\n&nbsp;the fourth ventricle &nbsp;and moves into the cerebral aqueduct\r\ninto the central\r\ncanal, which travels\r\nthe spinal cord. The ventricles\r\nare surrounded by the choroid\r\n&nbsp;plexus, which is composed\r\nof glial cells, called ependymal\r\ncells</p>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">(it is these cells that secrete\r\ncerebrospinal fluid throughout the ventricles and around the\r\nbrain).</p>\r\n\r\n</div><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">Watch a little video about ventricles here:&nbsp;</span></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><a href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9e9Lo0OPON4\" style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">Ventricles</a></p><p></p>',1),(356,79,355,0,20,0,1,1,1588823054,1615347514,'Networks','<p></p><p><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">Networks are built of nodes and connections;\r\nnodes are highly connected and highly central neocortical regions in the brain that are responsible for the integration of\r\ninformation, globally (across many networks) &nbsp;(Van\r\nden Heuvel &amp; Sporns,\r\n2011). Some nodes are more densely connected than others, some less. Rubinov and Sporns (2010) identified different\r\nnodes as different kinds of hubs, based upon their level of participation in th</span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">eir respective networks, or communities, as well as their level of connectedness to other modules.&nbsp;</span><br></p><p><span>Networks self-organize in such a way that allows a dynamic homeostasis between &nbsp;excitatory and inhibitory states, this is called \"self-organized criticality\" in physics.</span></p><p><span>We have many brain imaging modalities, of which EEG is the primary tool for neurotherapists and neurologists. However, its important you know all the other modalities, how they are used, and the mechanism of action they are tracking in the brain.&nbsp;</span></p><p><span>Here is an explaner video that covers, PET scan, CAT scans, MRI, and fMRI.</span></p><p><span><a href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N2apCx1rlIQ\">Neuro Imaging</a><br></span></p><p>And here is a video on how we came to understand networks via EEG</p><p><a href=\"https://vimeo.com/443180276\">Thatcher on Networks</a><br></p>\r\n\r\n<h3><a name=\"_Toc28940480\">Resting State Networks</a></h3>\r\n\r\n<p>There are thought &nbsp;to be 20 fundamental\r\n&nbsp;networks in the brain (Laird, et al, 2010}, which made of \"brain hubs.\" &nbsp;Hubs, or high density\r\nnodes, are highly connected and highly central neocortical\r\n&nbsp;hub regions\r\nin the brain that are responsible for the integration of information, globally (across\r\nmany networks). &nbsp;\"Rich clubs\" are the most densely connected\r\nhubs. There are at least 12 highly\r\nconnected, bi-hemispheric &nbsp;hubs, which lie in the precuneus, superior frontal&nbsp; and superior parietal\r\ncortex, as well as the subcortical hippocampus, putamen, and thalamus.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>\"[T]hese\r\nbrain regions play a central\r\nrole in the overall network &nbsp;organization. These nodes participate\r\n&nbsp;in multiple &nbsp;communications &nbsp;and are central, densely connected, and of short paths to one another\r\n(Sporns et al., 2007; van\r\nden Heuvel et al., 2010}.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>Rich clubs are very similar\r\nto the substation system in power grids. The subs are there to facilitate the transmission of power, disseminating loads at appropriate &nbsp;intervals to conjoining substations, allowing\r\nfor the ease of transmission and the prevention &nbsp;of system failure. Whether or not a rich club is present in a network&nbsp;\r\ncan provide details\r\nabout that network,\r\nin terms of the level\r\nof resilience, hierarchical ordering, and specialization. The fewer rich clubs as nodes would reflect a more specialized network.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>Disturbances in the hubs connectivity &nbsp;and structure &nbsp;is partly responsible for neuropathology. Failure of a hub can\r\nhave a severe effect on the level of global communication efficiency of a network,\r\ndue to its central role in the network (Albert\r\net al., 2000; Callaway et al., 2000;\r\nZhou and Mondragon, 2004). Studies have suggested connectome &nbsp;abnormalities in a wide range\r\nof neurological and psychiatric brain disorders, for example, Alzheimer\'s disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Parkinson\'s disease, schizophrenia, and autism, with each disorder\r\naffecting brain communication efficiency and capacity in a different\r\nmanner (Bosboom et al.,&nbsp;<span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">2009; Stam et al., 2009;\r\nLynall et al., 2010; van den Heuvel et al., 2010; Verstraete et al., 2010; Zalesky et\r\nal., 2011).</span></p><h4><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"><a name=\"_Toc28940481\"><b>Module decomposition of provincial and connector hubs and the major networks of the brain. Images from Van del Heuvet M.P. &amp; Sporns, 0. (2011). Rich club organization of the human connectome. The journal of neurosciences, 3(144). 15775-15786.</b></a></span></h4><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Networks.png\" alt=\"NETWORKS\" width=\"700\" height=\"729\" style=\"text-align: center; \" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></span></p><p><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"><a name=\"_Toc28940481\" style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.715rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"><br></a></span>&nbsp;</p><p></p>\r\n\r\n<br><p></p><p></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</span><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/NETWORKS%20.jpg\" alt=\"Resting Networks\" width=\"600\" height=\"441\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\" style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;\"></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><br></p><h3><div><h3><a name=\"_Toc28940482\" style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-size: 1.715rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\">Resting State Networks</a><br></h3>\r\n\r\n<p></p><p><br></p><h5><div>\r\n\r\n<p>The resting-state networks are built &nbsp;on the long\r\nfibrous white &nbsp;matter tracts &nbsp;that &nbsp;create the fundamental\r\nstructures of the brain. There are 14 major &nbsp;resting-state networks, these\r\nare the default mode network (DMN), &nbsp;dorsal atten-tion network (DAN),\r\nventral &nbsp;attention network (VAN), right &nbsp;frontoparietal network\r\n(rFPN), left &nbsp;frontoparietal net- work &nbsp;(IFPN), language network\r\n(LN}, cingula-opercular network (CON), auditory network (AN), ventral\r\n&nbsp;somata- &nbsp;motor network (VSN), dorsal somatomotor network (DSN),\r\nvisual foveal network (VFN), visual peripheral net- work (VPN), medial\r\n&nbsp;prefrontal network (MPN), and lateral prefrontal network (LPN).</p>\r\n\r\n<p>&nbsp;<span>Within resting state networks, low&nbsp;\r\nfrequency oscillations coordinate long-range&nbsp;</span><span>communications (von Stein et al., 2000)\r\nand gamma &nbsp;oscillations (40-150) coordinate local&nbsp;</span><span>communication (Buzsaki and Draguhn, 2004;\r\nvon Stein et al., 2000).&nbsp;</span><span>Cross-frequency coupling,\r\nin particular phase-amplitude coupling, has been attributed an important role\r\nfor communication between brain &nbsp;areas (Canolty &nbsp;and Knight, 2010;\r\nCanolty et al., 2006; Jensen and Colgin, 2007). Phase-amplitude coupling\r\nprovides a mechanism for&nbsp;</span><span>brain network information,\r\nwhich reconciles previous findings and theories &nbsp;on long-range\r\ncommunications between neural populations.</span></p>\r\n\r\n<p>The communication of\r\nlow-frequency oscillations\' phase needs to be time locked with no phase delay,\r\nsince cortical and subcortical hubs facilitate synchronization of distant\r\noscillatory activity &nbsp;with zero lag (Haider er al., 2006). The hubs act as\r\ndynamic relays of long- distance cortico-cortical information. Excitability\r\n&nbsp;cycles of local neural populations &nbsp;need to be synchronized to form\r\na network. High frequency bursts (i.e. gamma) are preferentially occurring\r\nabout the trough &nbsp;of the low frequency phase cycles of local field\r\npotentials &nbsp;(Canolty et al., 2006). If low-frequency phases are\r\nasynchronous (e.g. occurring at different &nbsp;frequencies and/or &nbsp;with\r\n&nbsp;a phase delay), the \"gate is closed\", &nbsp;and\r\nconsequentially, coherent high-frequency oscillations &nbsp;and/or\r\n&nbsp;synchronous&nbsp; cell firing are less likely to occur, leading to\r\nsuboptimal communication /coactivations between two brain regions (Florin &amp;\r\nBaillet, 2015).</p>\r\n\r\n<h3><a name=\"_Toc28940483\"><b>Default Mode Network</b></a></h3>\r\n\r\n<p>The most well-known of the\r\nresting state networks&nbsp; is the default mode network, which is an area of\r\nthe brain that&nbsp; is active when the brain is in wakeful rest. Generally\r\nspeaking,the DMN is online when we are not doing anything in particular, but\r\nare instead simply \"being.\" When we see hypo phase lag, as we do\r\nhere, there is a possibility&nbsp; that the DMN is off balance, and that the\r\nprocess of resting in a present state is off balance.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>Observations of the default\r\nmode network (DMN) during sleep show, just as during the DMN activity in mind\r\nwandering, that portions of the pre-frontal cortex are active during dreaming,\r\nas are the medial temporal lobe structures and the posterior &nbsp;cingulate\r\n(all of these points are nodes that make up the network of the DMN).\r\nConversely, other studies show that,&nbsp;<span>in REM sleep,\r\nexecutive-processing regions of the pre-frontal cortex are mostly deactivated,&nbsp;</span><span>beyond levels seen during waking mind\r\nwandering, which suggests that &nbsp;dreaming may be an \"intensified\"\r\nversion of waking mind wandering (Fox, Nijeboer, Solomonova, Domhoff, &amp;\r\nChristoff., 2015). Rizzolatti, Semi, &amp; Fabbri-Destro (2013) contend that\r\nthe activation ofthe DMN might &nbsp;correspond to the psychoanalytic\r\n&nbsp;unconscious (p. 5).</span></p><p><span>Here is an interesting video on the Default Mode Network</span></p><p><span><a href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QdPhkP9D2-A\">DMN video</a><br></span></p><p><span><br></span></p>\r\n\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc28940484\"><b>Fasiculli</b></a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p>Fasiculus means \"little\r\nbundle\" in Greek. These are cortical-cortical, intrahemispheric connections. They are nerve fibers\r\nin the central nervous system. Most&nbsp; projection pathways run dorso-ventral\r\n(descending) or vento- dorsal (ascending). Most association tracts run longitudinally\r\nalong and antero-posterior axis from the frontal lobes to the projection areas and vice versa and\r\nconnect cortical areas within the fasiculi. Arcurate fasiculli connect the frontal cortex to the temporal lobe.</p><p>Damaged fasiculli can reflect dementia, as well as learning disabilities (which can also be the result of wiring differences from normal demographic).&nbsp;<span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;</span></p><p>Here is a video on the Fiber Pathways of the Cerebrum</p><p><a href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LVasm5bqn-Y\">Fiber Pathways of the Cerebrum</a></p><p></p><h3>Short\r\nFasiculi: Also known as U-Fibers, shaped like a bow, which interconnect\r\ncortical regions.</h3>\r\n\r\n</div>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/short%20fasiculi.png\" alt=\"Short Fasiculi\" width=\"500\" height=\"311\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\" style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"></p><br clear=\"all\"></h5><p><br></p><p></p><p><span style=\"font-size: 1.715rem;\">Superior Longitudinal Fasiculus: Connects the frontal, temporal,\r\nparietal and occipital lobes</span><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Superior%20Longitudinal%20Fasiculus.png\" alt=\"Superior Longitudinal Fasiculi\" width=\"501\" height=\"342\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\" style=\"font-size: 1.715rem;\"></p><p></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p></p><p>Arcuate Fasiculus: Subset of the Superior Longitudinal Fasiculus,\r\nconnects Broca’s to Wernicke’s Areas</p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Arcuate%20Fasiculus.png\" alt=\"Arcuate Fasiculus\" width=\"499\" height=\"339\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\" style=\"font-size: 1.715rem;\"></p><p></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p></p><p>Inferior Longitudinal Fasiculus: Connects Occipital and Temporal\r\nLobes</p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Inferior%20Longitudinal%20Fasiculus.png\" alt=\"Inferior Longitudinal Fasiculus\" width=\"500\" height=\"334\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p></p><p>Uncinate Fasiculus: Connects Anterior Temporal and Inferior\r\nfrontal Lobes</p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/uncinate%20Fasiculus.png\" alt=\"Uncinate Fasiculus\" width=\"500\" height=\"321\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"><br></p><p><br></p><p></p><p><span style=\"font-size: 1.715rem;\">Cingulum (C-shaped) fasiculus: Connects the hemispheres and runs\r\nparallel with the cingulate and the parahippocampal gyrus</span><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><span style=\"font-size: 1.715rem;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/fasicului.png\" alt=\"fasicului\" width=\"600\" height=\"368\" class=\"atto_image_button_middle\"><br></span></p><br><p></p><p><br></p><p>Perpendicular Fasiculus: Runs up and down, intralobular in the\r\noccipital lobe</p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Perpendicular.png\" alt=\"Perpendicular\" width=\"500\" height=\"351\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\" style=\"font-size: 1.715rem;\"></p><p></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><span style=\"font-size: 1.715rem;\">Corpus Callosum: Bundle of fibers that connects the hemipsheres of\r\nthe brain</span><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1.715rem;\">&nbsp;</span><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Corpus%20Callosum.png\" alt=\"Corpus Callosum\" width=\"435\" height=\"335\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\" style=\"font-size: 1.715rem; text-align: center;\"></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><br></p><p></p><p><span style=\"font-size: 1.715rem;\">Anterior Commisure: connects the anterior temporal lobes and the\r\nolfactory bulbs</span><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Anterior%20Commisure.png\" alt=\"Anterior commisure\" width=\"501\" height=\"347\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\" style=\"font-size: 1.715rem;\"></p><p></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><span style=\"font-size: 1.715rem;\">Corona Radiata: Connects the cortex to the subcortical structures,\r\nsuch as the thalamus, the brainstem, etc.</span><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Corona%20Radiata.png\" alt=\"Corona Radiata\" width=\"500\" height=\"401\" class=\"atto_image_button_middle\" style=\"font-size: 1.715rem;\"></p><p></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p></p><h3><a name=\"_Toc28940485\">Internal Capsule:</a> </h3>\r\n\r\n<h5><p><br>The&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/internal-capsule\" title=\"Learn more about Internal Capsule from ScienceDirect\'s AI-generated Topic Pages\">internal capsule</a>&nbsp;is a thick sheet of white matter consisting of&nbsp;<b>projection fibres</b>&nbsp;passing to and from the cerebral cortex. It makes a sharp ‘knee-bend’ or&nbsp;<b>genu</b>&nbsp;around the apex of the lentiform nucleus (Latin: genu, knee). This gives it a V-shape when viewed in axial (horizontal) section (Fig. 3.22). There is therefore an&nbsp;<b>anterior limb</b>&nbsp;(between the lentiform nucleus and the head of the caudate nucleus) and a&nbsp;<b>posterior limb</b>&nbsp;(between the lentiform nucleus and the thalamus).</p><br></h5><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/internal%20capsule.png\" alt=\"fasiculi\" width=\"500\" height=\"426\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\" style=\"font-size: 1.715rem;\"></p><p></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940486\">Fornix</a></p><h5><a name=\"_Toc28940486\">The&nbsp;<b>fornix</b>&nbsp;(meaning\r\n\"arch\" in Latin) is a C-shaped bundle of nerve fibers in the brain\r\nthat acts as the major output tract of the hippocampus. The&nbsp;<b>fornix</b>&nbsp;also carries\r\nsome afferent fibres to the hippocampus from structures in the diencephalon and\r\nbasal forebrain. The&nbsp;<b>fornix</b>&nbsp;is part of\r\nthe limbic system.</a></h5><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Fornix.png\" alt=\"Fornix\" width=\"501\" height=\"323\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"><br></p><br><p></p><p></p><p></p></div></h3><p></p>',1),(357,80,0,358,20,0,0,1,1588963808,1594049199,'Anti-Epileptic and Anti-Convulsant Drugs','<span>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</span><p></p><p>Anti-epileptic drugs (AED) and anti-convulsant drugs are most prescribed by neurologists for the treatment of seizures and epileptiform discharges.</p><p></p><h2>Negative/Bad Effects of AED Drugs on EEG</h2>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Diffuse Slowing</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Electro-cerebral Inactivity</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Epileptiform Discharges (this is rare)</p>\r\n\r\n<h3>Drugs that cause this:</h3>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Phenobarbital</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Benzodiazepines</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Carbamazepine</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Phenytoin</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Ethosuximide</p>\r\n\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc14686148\">Positive/Good Effects of AED Drugs on EEG</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->In epilepsy, reduction in generalized Spike and\r\nWave (classic epileptiform EEG)</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->In epilepsy, decreased reactivity to\r\nphotoparoxysms with photic stimulation</p>\r\n\r\n<h2>Other Effects of AEDs:</h2>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->o&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->May reduce alpha frequency and voltage<u></u></p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->o&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Diffuse slowing and depressed levels of\r\nconsciousness<u></u></p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->o&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Toxicity produces higher amplitude beta spindles<u>&nbsp;(t</u><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">his includes anything that induces sleep, anything ending in “azepam” or\r\n“albetol”)</span></p><p><u></u></p>\r\n\r\n<p>Some types of anti-epileptic drugs for focal\r\nepileptiform discharges can cause seizures, agents that are gabaergic can\r\ninduce absence or myoclonic epilepsy.</p><p></p><h1>Generic AED names with&nbsp;brand names</h1><h4>Carbamazepine&nbsp;also available as&nbsp;Carbagen,&nbsp;Tegretol,&nbsp;Tegretol Prolonged Release</h4><p><br></p><h3>Image of Tegretol pills and chemical bond</h3><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Carbamazepine%20%281%29.jpg\" alt=\"Carbamazepine\" width=\"500\" height=\"726\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></p><p>Carbamazepine is a favorite partial seizure medicine in the developed world. Carbamazepine affects sodium channels, and inhibits rapid firing of brain cells. Long-acting forms such as Carbatrol or Tegretol-XR can be given once a day. Potential side effects include gastero-intestinal upset, weight gain, blurred vision, low blood counts, and low blood sodium (hyponatremia). Carbamazepine causes a rash rate of a few percent, sometimes even the dangerous rash called Stevens-Johnson syndrome. People of Asian descent with HLA-B*1502 antigen are more at risk. Typical adult dose is 400 mg tid.&nbsp;</p><p>This is a good choice of AED for slow alpha variants.</p><br><p></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><h4><br></h4><h4><br></h4><h4><br></h4><h4><br></h4><h4><br></h4><h4><br></h4><h4>Benzodiazepines and EEG Effects</h4><p>Benzodiazepines produce a spindling, sinusoidal hyper-rhythmic 18-25Hz pattern. They also decrease alpha.&nbsp;<span>Sometimes this pattern is more pronounced in the front of the head, but the pattern can be seen globally.&nbsp;</span><span>Dosing and systemic vascularity of the being will alter the expression of how the drug will appear.</span></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><span><audio controls=\"true\" class=\"\"><source src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/9796486011639889-audio.ogg\">@@PLUGINFILE@@/9796486011639889-audio.ogg</audio><br></span></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><span><br></span></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><span><a href=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Benzodiazepine%20EEG.mp4\">Benzodiazepine EEG.mp4</a><br></span></p><p><br></p><h3><span>&nbsp;Image of Benzodiazepine Pill Abuse Statistics</span></h3><h4><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1.286rem;\">&nbsp;</span><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Benzodiazepine%20Abuse%20Statistics.png\" alt=\"Benzodiazepine Abuse Statistics\" width=\"600\" height=\"331\" class=\"atto_image_button_middle\" style=\"font-size: 1.286rem; text-align: center;\"></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><br></p></h4><p><br></p><p><br></p><h4><span style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.715rem;\">Image of Different Types of Benzodiazepine Pills</span></h4><p style=\"text-align: center; \">&nbsp;<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Benzodiazepine%20Pills.jpg\" alt=\"Benzodiazepine Pills\" width=\"600\" height=\"291\" style=\"text-align: center; \" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><br></p><h4><span style=\"font-size: 1.286rem;\"><br></span></h4><h4><span style=\"font-size: 1.286rem;\">Image of Benzodiazepine Toxicity in EEG</span><br></h4><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Benzodiazepines%20in%20the%20EEG.png\" alt=\"Benzodiazepines in the EEG\" width=\"700\" height=\"624\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \">·&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</p><h4>Image of Benzodiazepine Toxicity in a Linked Ears Montage. <i>Image generated from Neuroguide version 3.0.6.</i></h4><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BENZODIAZEPINE%20QEEG.png\" alt=\"BENZODIAZEPINE QEEG\" width=\"700\" height=\"906\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"><br></p><p></p><p>·&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</p><p></p><h3><span style=\"font-size: 1.286rem;\">Image of Benzodiazepine Toxicity in individual Hertz bins (linked ears montage). </span><i style=\"font-size: 1.286rem;\">Image generated from Neuroguide version 3.0.6.</i><br></h3><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Benzodiazepines%20in%20individual%20hertz%20bins.png\" alt=\"Benzodiazepines in individual hertz bins\" width=\"700\" height=\"354\" class=\"atto_image_button_middle\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Benzodiazepines%20in%20individual%20hertz%20bins2.png\" alt=\"Benzodiazepines in individual hertz bins\" width=\"700\" height=\"351\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><br></p><h3>More Anti-Convulstants</h3><h4><br></h4><p><span style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.715rem;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Neurontin.jpg\" alt=\"Neurontin Pills\" width=\"400\" height=\"290\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></span></p><p></p><p></p><h4>Gabapentin&nbsp;also available as&nbsp;Neurontin</h4><p></p><p>This is often used as a secondary anticonvulsant to boost GABA.&nbsp;Gabapentin has the reputation of being a safe but not particularly powerful AED. The effectiveness criticism probably is because it is often prescribed at too low a dose. The drug probably works by influencing transport of GABA and effects on calcium channels. It has no drug interactions, is not metabolized in the liver and it does not bind to blood proteins. Side effects are unsteadiness, weight gain, fatigue, dizziness. Typical adult dose is 300-600 mg three times a day, but doses can be up to 1200 mg three times a day.</p><p><br></p><p><br></p><h4 style=\"text-align: center;\"><br></h4><h5><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Vimpat.jpg\" alt=\"Vimpat\" width=\"401\" height=\"267\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"><h4><a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=lacosamide\" target=\"_blank\">Lacosamide</a><span>&nbsp;available as&nbsp;</span><a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=lacosamide\" target=\"_blank\">Vimpat</a>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</h4></span></h5><p>Lacosamide is a new (2009) antiepileptic drug, for partial and secondarily generalized seizures. It is chemically related to the amino acid, serine. Vimpat blocks sodium channels (but in a different way from other seizure medicines), and this block reduces brain excitability. Side effects include dizziness, headache, nausea or vomiting, double vision, fatigue, memory or mood problems. Vimpat may affect the internal organs, blood counts or heart rhythm, but these potentially serious side effects are infrequent. The recommended starting dose is 50 mg twice daily, increased each week by an extra 100 mg, to the recommended maintenance dosage of 100-200 mg 2x/day.&nbsp; &nbsp;</p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><span style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.286rem;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Lamictal.jpeg\" alt=\"Lamictal\" width=\"400\" height=\"300\" class=\"atto_image_button_left\"></span></p><h4><span style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.286rem;\">&nbsp;</span><a href=\"https://www.epilepsysociety.org.uk/lamotrigine\" style=\"font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.286rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\">Lamotrigine</a><span style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.286rem;\">&nbsp;also available as&nbsp;</span><a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=Lamotrigine\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.286rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\">Lamitcal</a></h4><p></p><p>Lamotrigine is a broad-spectrum alternative to VPA, with a better side effect profile. However, lamotrigine may not be as effective for myoclonic seizures. Lamotrigine works by several mechanisms including blocking release of glutamate, the brain’s main excitatory neurotransmitter. It has the usual side effects of dizziness and fatigue, usually mild cognitive (thinking) impairment. Severe medical side effects are unusual. The practical side effect issue is rash, occurring in several percent of people who take it, especially if the dose is increased too fast. Therefore, it takes a couple of months to get up to the typical adult dose of 200 mg twice a day.&nbsp;</p><p>This is the best option for an EEG when the individual has a normal peak frequency alpha.</p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><h4></h4><p></p><p><img src=\"https://schoolofneurotherapy.com/classroom/pluginfile.php/472/mod_lesson/page_contents/357/Keppra.jpg\" alt=\"Keppra\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"></p><h4><a href=\"https://www.epilepsysociety.org.uk/levetiracetam\" style=\"font-size: 1.286rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\">Levetiracetam</a><span style=\"font-size: 1.286rem;\">&nbsp;also available as&nbsp;</span><a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=%22Levetiracetam%22\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"font-size: 1.286rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\">Desitrend</a><span style=\"font-size: 1.286rem;\">,&nbsp;</span><a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=%22Levetiracetam%22\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"font-size: 1.286rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\">Keppra</a><br></h4><p>Levetiracetam is one of the more used medicines in seizure clinics because it probably is effective for a broad-spectrum of seizures types, has a relatively low incidence of causing thinking/memory problems, and can be started at 500 mg twice a day, which is an effective dose. It has no drug interactions, is not metabolized in the liver and it does not bind to blood proteins. The most common side effects are dizziness, fatigue, insomnia, but the more troublesome problem can be irritability and mood changes. This may occur to some degree in up to a third of those taking the medicine. A typical adult dose is 500 - 1500 mg twice a day. This is best for epileptic findings that are temporal and generalized.<br></p><p><br></p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Ativan.jpg\" alt=\"Ativan\" width=\"400\" height=\"300\" class=\"atto_image_button_left\"></p><h4>Lorazepam (Ativan)</h4>Lorazepam is similar to clonazepam in dosage and action, but it is not as long-acting. It is usually used as a ‘rescue medication’ for patients who frequently have clusters of seizures. Best used&nbsp;for status epilepticus or very short-term management, as it is highly addictive and has dependency&nbsp;potential.&nbsp;It works reasonably quickly when taken orally and anti-seizure effect lasts for 2-6 hours. Typical adult dose is 0.5-2.0 mg orally or as needed.&nbsp;<p></p><h4><br></h4><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><h3><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Oxcarbmazepine.jpg\" alt=\"Oxcarbazepine\" width=\"400\" height=\"300\" role=\"presentation\" class=\"atto_image_button_left\"></h3><h4><a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=%22Oxcarbazepine%22\" target=\"_blank\">Oxcarbazepine</a><span>&nbsp;also available as&nbsp;</span><a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=%22Oxcarbazepine%22\" target=\"_blank\">Trileptal</a><span>&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</span></h4><p>Slightly different from carbamazepine, it is at least as effective and may have fewer side effects, except for more risk for low blood sodium (hyponatremia). It is more expensive than generic carbamazepine. A typical adult dose is 600 mg twice a day. Ideal for people with slow alpha peak frequencies.&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;<br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><h4><br></h4><h4><br></h4><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Phenobarbitol.jpg\" alt=\"Phenobarbitol\" width=\"401\" height=\"300\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></p><p></p><h4><a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=%22Phenobarbital%22\" target=\"_blank\">Phenobarbital</a>&nbsp;also available as Luminal</h4>The old-timer: very inexpensive and effective in a single daily dose. Phenobarbital increases the effect of GABA, the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain. Watch for sedation, thinking/memory problems and depression. Phenobarbital can cause long-term bone problems. Phenobarbital is mildly addictive and requires slow withdrawal. Phenobarbitol is used for infants.<p></p><h3><br></h3><p><br></p><h4>&nbsp;</h4><h4><br></h4><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/dilantin.jpg\" alt=\"Dilantin\" width=\"300\" height=\"300\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"></p><h4><a href=\"https://www.epilepsysociety.org.uk/phenytoin\">Phenytoin</a>&nbsp;also available as<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=phenytoin\" target=\"_blank\">&nbsp;Epanutin</a>,&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=phenytoin+sodium+flynn\" target=\"_blank\">Phenytoin Sodium Flynn</a>, Dilantin</h4><p></p><p>The most used AED by general physicians in the US, less so by epilepsy doctors, because of the side effects. Phenytoin alters brain cell sodium channels, which has the effect of limiting&nbsp;rapid firing of the brain cells. It is inexpensive. Common side effects are unsteadiness and moderate cognitive problems. There are long-term potential cosmetic (body/face hair growth, skin problems), and bone problems (osteoporosis). Phenytoin causes a rash rate of a few percent, sometimes even the dangerous rash called Stevens-Johnson syndrome. Typical adult dose is 300-400 mg per day, usually with 100 mg pills.</p><p><br></p><h3><br></h3><p><br></p><h3><br></h3><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Lyrica.jpg\" alt=\"Lyrica\" width=\"400\" height=\"268\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"></p><h4><a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=pregabalin&amp;offset=1&amp;limit=50&amp;orderBy=company&amp;refreshFilters=true\" target=\"_blank\">Pregabalin</a><span>&nbsp;also available as&nbsp;</span><a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=pregabalin&amp;offset=1&amp;limit=50&amp;orderBy=product&amp;refreshFilters=true\" target=\"_blank\">Alzain</a><span>,&nbsp;</span><a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=axalid\" target=\"_blank\">Axalid</a><span>,</span><a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=pregabalin&amp;offset=1&amp;limit=50&amp;orderBy=newest&amp;refreshFilters=true\" target=\"_blank\">&nbsp;Lecaent</a><span>,&nbsp;</span><a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=lyrica\" target=\"_blank\">Lyrica</a><span>,&nbsp;</span><a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=pregabalin&amp;offset=1&amp;limit=50&amp;orderBy=product-desc&amp;refreshFilters=true\" target=\"_blank\">Rewisca</a></h4><p></p><p>A relative of gabapentin, it may be better, and can be given twice a day. Some believe that it is more effective against seizures than is gabapentin. Pregabalin has no drug interactions, no liver metabolism, no protein binding, and similar side effects to gabapentin. Typical adult dose is 150 - 600 mg bid.&nbsp;</p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><span style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.286rem;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Banzel.jpg\" alt=\"Banzel\" width=\"359\" height=\"300\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=rufinamide\" target=\"_blank\">Rufinamide</a><span>&nbsp;available as&nbsp;</span><a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=rufinamide\" target=\"_blank\">Inovelon</a><span>, Banzel</span><br></span></p><p>Banzel is approved for add-on treatment of children age 4 and older and adults with&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.epilepsy.com/learn/types-epilepsy-syndromes/lennox-gastaut-syndrome-lgs\">Lennox Gastaut Syndrome</a>. This syndrome can include seizure types such as atonic (drop) seizures, tonic (stiffening) seizures, myoclonic (brief jerking) seizures, or staring (absence) seizures, as well as partial seizures. Banzel works on sodium channels in brain cells, in a way to make them less excitable. Common side effects include headache, dizziness, fatigue and sleepiness, double vision and tremor (trembling). People who have the “short QT syndrome,” a rare heart rhythm irregularity, should not take Banzel. The drug comes as 200 and 400 mg tablets.</p><p></p><h4><br></h4><h4><br></h4><h4><br></h4><p><br></p><p><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Topomax.jpg\" alt=\"Topomax\" width=\"259\" height=\"194\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\">&nbsp;</span></p><h4><a href=\"https://www.epilepsysociety.org.uk/topiramate\">Topiramate</a>&nbsp;also available as&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=%22Topiramate%22\" target=\"_blank\">Topamax</a></h4>A good broad-spectrum AED (i.e., treats all types of seizures). Topiramate has several mechanisms, including blocking the enzyme carbonic anhydrase, which affects the acidity of brain tissue. More acidity (to a point) suppresses seizures. Side effects include thinking and memory problems in about 1/3rd, renal stones in 1-2%, rare cases of glaucoma (increased eye pressure) and weight loss. Typical adult dose is 150-200 mg twice a day.&nbsp;<p></p><h4><br></h4><h4><br></h4><h4><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Depakote.jpg\" alt=\"Depakote\" width=\"270\" height=\"172\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"></h4><p></p><h4><a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=%22valproic+acid%22\" target=\"_blank\">Valproic acid</a>&nbsp;available as<a href=\"https://bnf.nice.org.uk/drug/valproic-acid.html#indicationsAndDoses\" target=\"_blank\">&nbsp;Depakote, Convulex</a>,&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=%22valproic+acid%22\" target=\"_blank\">Epilim Chrono</a>,&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=%22valproic+acid%22\" target=\"_blank\">Epilim Chronosphere</a></h4>This is the standard broad-spectrum AED (treats all types of seizures) and no other AED is more effective for generalized seizure types. VPA has effects on GABA (at least in very high doses), and a neurotransmitter called NPY to block seizures, and maybe also on calcium channels. VPA has significant side effects: weight gain, tremor, hair loss, GI upset, blood count decreases, hepatic or pancreatic injury, bone weakness over time (osteoporosis), birth defects in up to 10% (folic acid can help to prevent them). Typical adult dose is 250 mg - 500 mg three times a day, but dose can be higher.&nbsp; This is best used on children\r\n(and for bipolar diagnoses with Lithium)<p></p><p><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</span><br></p><h4><br></h4><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Sabril.jpg\" alt=\"Sabril\" width=\"401\" height=\"156\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"></p><p></p><h4><a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=%22vigabatrin%22\" target=\"_blank\">Vigabatrin</a>&nbsp;available as&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=%22vigabatrin%22\" target=\"_blank\">Sabril</a></h4><p>At the time of this writing, vigabatrin is approved in the US, but official package insert information has not become available. Vigabatrin is a “designer drug,” made to block metabolism of GABA, the brain’s main inhibitory neurotransmitter. Sabril has been used for over a decade in many countries, and it is effective for partial seizures, with or without secondary generalization. It also may be very effective for infantile spasms, a serious type of seizures in young children. Release in the US was delayed because the drug is toxic to the retina of the eye in up to 30% of people who take it long-term. This toxicity can result in permanent loss of peripheral vision. Regular vision testing is recommended for all people on this drug. A typical regimen begins with 500 mg twice a day, and can increase over a month or two to 1500 mg twice a day.&nbsp;</p><br><br><p></p>',1),(358,80,357,0,20,0,0,1,1588963900,1594466703,'Barbiturates','<p></p><p></p><p>Barbiturates (ending in “barbitol”) are a class\r\nof drugs that were used extensively in the 1960s and 1970s as a treatment\r\nfor&nbsp;anxiety,&nbsp;insomnia, and\r\nseizure disorders. Apart from a few specific indications, they are not commonly\r\nprescribed these days, having been largely superseded by benzodiazepines.</p><p>Barbiturates are sedative drugs, which slow down the central nervous system in a similar way to alcohol. A small dose will make people feel relaxed, sociable and good-humoured. With larger doses hostility and anxiety are common effects and slurred speech, loss of co-ordination and difficulty staying awake may follow. Falling over and accidents become more likely. &nbsp;Injected into a vein barbiturates produce an almost immediate feeling of warmth and drowsiness.</p><p><br></p><p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/barbituates.jpg\" alt=\"Barbituates\" width=\"318\" height=\"239\" style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"></p><br></p><p><span style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.286rem;\">Effects</span><br></p>\r\n\r\n<p>In barbituates, high\r\namplitude rhythmic 18 to 26 Hz activity is noted, initially frontally,\r\nspreading with time to the entire cortex. With increased dose there is an\r\nincrease in slowing, with further increases the faster activity is decreased\r\nand the slowing predominates, progressing to a decreased voltage and even a\r\nrecoverable iso-electric pattern, in <u>barbiturate coma</u>.</p><p>Here are some of the EEG reactions to barbituates:</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Low voltage recording</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Electro cerebal inactivity</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Higher amplitude beta 1 and 2 bandwidth</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Diffuse slowing</p><br><p></p>',1),(359,81,0,0,20,0,1,1,1589236641,1593958591,'Analgesics and Opioids','<p></p><p>An&nbsp;analgesic&nbsp;or&nbsp;painkiller&nbsp;is any member of the group of&nbsp;drugs&nbsp;used to achieve analgesia, relief from&nbsp;pain. Analgesic drugs act in various ways on the&nbsp;peripheral&nbsp;and&nbsp;central&nbsp;nervous systems. They are distinct from&nbsp;anesthetics, which temporarily affect, and in some instances completely eliminate,&nbsp;sensation.</p><p>Analgesics include acetaminophen, the&nbsp;nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs&nbsp;(NSAIDs) such as the&nbsp;salicylates, and&nbsp;opioid&nbsp;drugs such as&nbsp;morphine&nbsp;and&nbsp;oxycodone. They can be highly addictive. Oxycontin, as seen below, was once a widely prescribed drug, but due to the opioid epidemic in America, it has become more regulated.</p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Oxycontin.jpg\" alt=\"Oxycontin\" width=\"420\" height=\"237\"></p><p>o&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Tramadol (yellow and green pills below) is an opiate analgesic – one of the weaker opiate analgesics, it is used to treat moderate to moderate-severe pain.</p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/tramadol.jpg\" alt=\"tramadol\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"></p><h1><a name=\"_Toc14686155\">Opioids</a></h1><p>Opioids include tramadol, oxycodone, morphine, &nbsp;codeine,&nbsp;hydrocodone,&nbsp;dihydromorphine, and pethidine.&nbsp;&nbsp;These medications are known for their addictive properties. Tramadol is an opioid that acts as an SNRI, which occupies a serotonin transporter in the thalamus. This drug can produce a spike wave discharge (giving rise to seizure), however, the more common findings are less remarkable: greater alpha synchrony and somewhat heightened beta amplitudes.</p><p>Effects include:</p><p></p><ul><li>Slowing in the delta range</li><li>&nbsp;Greater alpha synchrony</li><li>Higher amplitde beta</li><li>&nbsp; Burst suppression pattern in neonates</li><li>&nbsp;Enhancement of epileptiform activity</li></ul><p></p><p><br></p><p>&nbsp;The below data is a patient with addiction to pain killers, namely tramadol, oxycontin, and hydrocodone.</p><h3><a name=\"_Toc14686156\">The 5 – 6Hz rhythm we see prominent at O2 and T6&nbsp; is a paroxysmal transient that occurs when the patient has closed eyes</a>, opiate addict.</h3><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/5-6hz.png\" alt=\"5-6Hz\" width=\"500\" height=\"732\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></p><p></p><p><br></p><p></p><h5></h5><h3>The slow content that gives rise to seizure activity in an opiate addict is seen quantified here.</h3><br><h5 style=\"text-align: center; \"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Slow%20Content.png\" alt=\"Slow Content\" width=\"600\" height=\"383\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></h5><h5><p>The figure below shows a fast spindling beta\r\nfrequency. This is a kindling frequency, which means that it is this fast\r\nspindling frequency that ultimately leads to the slow transient discharge that\r\nis ultimately the problem. In this case, the spindling beta represents an\r\nirritable cortex—one that is easily “kindled,” meaning that it easily sets off\r\nan epileptic event.</p></h5><h3><br>This fast spindling beta is a sign of an easily kindled cortex, which gives rise to epileptiform content (opioid addict)</h3><p></p><p><br>\r\n\r\n</p><p></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/beta%20spindles.png\" alt=\"Beta Spindlse\" width=\"600\" height=\"957\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"></p><p><br></p><h3>Image of high amplitude spindling beta in an opiate addict</h3><p style=\"text-align: center; \">&nbsp;<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/map.png\" alt=\"map\" width=\"600\" height=\"377\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"></p><p>The two figures above show a fast spindling beta frequency. This is a kindling frequency, which means that it is this fast spindling frequency that ultimately leads to the slow transient discharge that is ultimately the problem. In this case, the spindling beta represents an irritable cortex—one that is easily “kindled,” meaning that it easily sets off an event.</p><p><br>\r\n\r\n</p><br><p></p>',1),(360,82,0,0,20,0,1,1,1589237863,1595618396,'Types of Psychotropic Drugs','<p></p>\r\n<p><b>Types of Psychotropic Drugs</b></p>\r\n\r\n<ul type=\"disc\">\r\n    <li>Antidepressants</li>\r\n    <li>Antipsychotics</li>\r\n    <li>Anxiolytics</li>\r\n    <li>Hypnotics</li>\r\n    <li>Mood stabilizers</li>\r\n    <li>Stimulants</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<p><b>Most Frequently\r\nPrescribed&nbsp;Psychotropic Drugs</b></p>\r\n\r\n<p>\r\n    <!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n    <!--[endif]-->Xanax (alprazolam), 48.5 million.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>\r\n    <!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n    <!--[endif]-->Zoloft (sertraline), 41.4 million.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>\r\n    <!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n    <!--[endif]-->Celexa (citalopram), 39.4 million.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>\r\n    <!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n    <!--[endif]-->Prozac (fluoxetine), 28.3 million.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>\r\n    <!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n    <!--[endif]-->Ativan (lorazepam), 27.9 million.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>\r\n    <!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n    <!--[endif]-->Desyrel (trazodone HCL), 26.2 million.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>\r\n    <!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n    <!--[endif]-->Lexapro (escitalopram), 24.9 million.</p>\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc14686158\">Anti-depressants</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p>Antidepressants are grouped into&nbsp;classes&nbsp;based on how they affect the chemistry of the brain. While the antidepressants in a class will tend to have similar side effects and&nbsp;mechanisms of action, there are differences in their molecular\r\n    structures which can influence how well the drug is absorbed, disseminated, or tolerated in different people.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>There are three basic molecules, known chemically as monoamines, that are believed to be involved in mood regulation. These primarily work as neurotransmitters, which literally transmit nerve signals to their corresponding receptors in the brain. Antidepressants\r\n    work by influencing these neurotransmitters, which include:</p>\r\n\r\n<ul type=\"disc\">\r\n    <li><b>Serotonin</b>, the neurotransmitter whose role it is to regulate mood, appetite, sleep, memory, social behavior, and sexual desire</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n\r\n<h4><b>Image of the Chemical Bond of Serotonin</b></h4>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><span style=\"font-weight: bold; font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;</span><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Serotonin.jpg\" alt=\"Serotonin\" width=\"350\" height=\"336\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\" style=\"font-weight: bold; font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;\"><span style=\"font-weight: bold; font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;</span></p><span><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><br></p></span>\r\n<p></p>\r\n\r\n<ul type=\"disc\">\r\n    <li><b>Norepinephrine</b>, which influences alertness and motor function and helps regulate blood pressure and heart rate in response to stress</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n<h4><b>Image of the Norepinephrine Chemical Bond</b></h4>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;</span><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Norepinephrine.jpg\" alt=\"Norepinephrine\" width=\"350\" height=\"294\" class=\"atto_image_button_middle\" style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;\"></p><span><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><br></p></span>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<h4><b>Image of the Dopamine Chemical Bond</b></h4>\r\n<p></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;</span><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Dopamine.png\" alt=\"Dopamine\" width=\"500\" height=\"370\" class=\"atto_image_button_middle\" style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;\"></p><span><span style=\"font-weight: 600;\"><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><br></p></span></span><p></p><p><b style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"><b style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">Dopamine</b><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; font-weight: 400;\">, which plays a central role in decision-making, motivation, arousal, and the signaling of pleasure and reward</span></b><br></p>\r\n\r\n<p><br></p><p><u style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.715rem;\">There are five classes of anti-depressants; SSRIs,&nbsp; SNRIs, MAOs, TCAs, &amp; atypical\r\nantidepressants</u><br></p>\r\n\r\n<h3><a name=\"_Toc14686159\">Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)</a></h3>\r\n\r\n<p>There are a number of antidepressants that work by preventing the reabsorption (reuptake) of neurotransmitters into the body. Collectively known as&nbsp;reuptake inhibitors, they prevent the reuptake of one or more neurotransmitters so that more are available\r\n    and active in the brain.\r\n</p>\r\n\r\n<p>Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors&nbsp;(SSRIs) work by specifically inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin. SSRIs are a newer class of antidepressants first developed during the 1970s.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>Examples include:</p>\r\n\r\n<ul type=\"disc\">\r\n    <li>Prozac (fluoxetine)</li>\r\n    <li>Paxil (paroxetine)</li>\r\n    <li>Zoloft (sertraline)</li>\r\n    <li>Celexa (citalopram)</li>\r\n    <li>Luvox (fluvoxamine)</li>\r\n    <li>Lexapro (escitalopram)</li>\r\n    <li>Viibryd (vilazodone)</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n\r\n<p>SSRIs tend to have fewer side effects than older antidepressants but are still known to nausea, insomnia, nervousness, tremors, and sexual dysfunction.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>In addition to treating depressions, SSRIs are also sometimes used to treat obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), eating disorders, and premature ejaculations. They have also proved helpful during stroke recovery.</p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Effects</h4>\r\n\r\n<p>These more modern antidepressants have fewer changes in the slow activity (associated with less viscero/autonomic side-effect), with a mild fronto-central beta increase in the range of 18-25 Hz and a decrease in alpha anteriorly.</p>\r\n<p>Here is a short video on SSRIs</p>\r\n<p>&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uiXcAbrO8kU\">SSRI Video</a><br></p>\r\n\r\n<h3><a name=\"_Toc14686160\">Serotonin and\r\nNorepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors (SNRIs)</a></h3>\r\n\r\n<p>Serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors&nbsp;(SNRIs) work in a similar way to SSRIs except that they inhibit the reuptake of both norepinephrine and serotonin. The first SNRI was FDA-approved in December 1993.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>Increasing norepinephrine levels in tandem with serotonin levels can be particularly useful or people with&nbsp;psychomotor retardation&nbsp;(the slowing of physical movement and thought).\r\n</p>\r\n\r\n<p>Examples of SNRIs include:</p>\r\n\r\n<ul type=\"disc\">\r\n    <li>Effexor (venlafaxine)\r\n    </li>\r\n    <li>Cymbalta (duloxetine)\r\n    </li>\r\n    <li>Pristiq (desvenlafaxine)\r\n    </li>\r\n    <li>Savella (milnacipran)\r\n    </li>\r\n    <li>Fetzima (levomilnacipran)\r\n    </li>\r\n</ul>\r\n\r\n<p>Common side effects of SNRIs include nausea, drowsiness, fatigue, constipation, and dry mouth.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>Some SNRIs, like Cymbalta, can also be used to treat chronic pain, a condition closely linked to the development of depression. They have also proven useful in treating generalized anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), social anxiety disorder\r\n    (SAD), panic disorder, and nerve pain associated with fibromyalgia.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>If the frontal lobe has regular frequency alpha seen in excess, especially with eyes-closed frontal alpha hypercoherence, then in our experience, an SSRI or an SNRI may be used to increase frontal function.</p>\r\n<p>Here\'s a video on how SNRIs work</p>\r\n<p><a href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FrE7nfqlBjs\">SNRI Video</a><br></p>\r\n\r\n<h3><a name=\"_Toc14686161\">Tricyclic\r\nAntidepressants (TCAs)</a></h3>\r\n\r\n<p>Tricyclic antidepressants&nbsp;(TCAs) are an older class of drug first discovered in the 1950s. They were named after their chemical structure, which is composed of three interconnected rings of atoms.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>TCAs work similarly to reuptake inhibitors in that they block the absorption of serotonin and norepinephrine into nerve cells, as well as another neurotransmitter known as&nbsp;acetylcholine&nbsp;(which helps regulate the movement of skeletal muscles).</p>\r\n\r\n<p>Examples of TCAs include:</p>\r\n\r\n<ul type=\"disc\">\r\n    <li>Elavil (amitriptyline)**</li>\r\n    <li>Norpramin (desipramine)</li>\r\n    <li>Asendin (amoxapine)</li>\r\n    <li>Anafranil (clomipramine)</li>\r\n    <li>Pamelor (nortriptyline)</li>\r\n    <li>Tofranil (imipramine)*</li>\r\n    <li>Vivactil (protriptyline)</li>\r\n    <li>Surmontil (trimipramine)</li>\r\n    <li>Sinequan (doxepin)</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n\r\n<h4>Effects</h4>\r\n\r\n<p><b>*Imipramine</b></p>\r\n\r\n<p>This drug produces an increase in slow activity, a decrease in alpha 1 and 2 amplitude, and an increase in the faster beta frequencies in the mid to upper 20 Hz range and up.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>**<strong>Amitriptyline</strong></p>\r\n<p>This drug produces more slowing than imipramine, though the other effects are similar. This corresponds to an increased initial sedative effect and its use as a sleeping medication for sleep onset as well as the usual wakefulness effects of antidepressants.\r\n    In epileptics, there are increases in paroxysmal discharges, which can be controlled normally with adjustments to the anti-epileptic medications.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>In addition to their use in depression, tricyclic antidepressants can help treat chronic pain. They were also once commonly used in children with attention deficit hyperactivity (ADHD) but have since been replaced with more effective drug agents with\r\n    fewer side effects.</p>\r\n<p>Here\'s a video on Tricyclic antidepressants</p>\r\n<p><a href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lzcYPKjjQvY\">Tricyclic Antidepressants</a><br></p>\r\n\r\n<h3><a name=\"_Toc14686162\">Monoamine\r\nOxidase Inhibitors (MAOIs)</a></h3>\r\n\r\n<p>One of the first classes of antidepressants developed were&nbsp;\r\n    <a href=\"https://www.verywellmind.com/monoamine-oxidase-inhibitors-maois-2584303\">monoamine\r\noxidase inhibitors</a>&nbsp;(MAOIs). This antidepressant class, first discovered in the 1950s, inhibits the action of an enzyme called monoamine oxidase, whose role it is to break down monoamines. By blocking this effect, more neurotransmitters are\r\n    available for use in mood regulation.\r\n</p>\r\n\r\n<p>Examples of MAOIs include:\r\n</p>\r\n\r\n<ul type=\"disc\">\r\n    <li>Nardil (phenelzine)</li>\r\n    <li>Parnate (tranylcypromine)</li>\r\n    <li>Marplan (isocarboxazid)</li>\r\n    <li>Emsam (selegiline)</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n\r\n<p>MAOIs have proven useful in treating&nbsp;agoraphobia, social phobia,&nbsp;bulimia, PTSD, borderline personality disorder, and bipolar depression. Even so, its use is usually reserved for when other antidepressant options have failed.</p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Effects</h4>\r\n\r\n<p>These medications have a wider variation of response than the other antidepressants.&nbsp;\r\n    <em>Isocarboxazide</em>&nbsp;increases 30-20 Hz and decreases slower and higher frequencies, similar to a stimulant profile.&nbsp;<em>Nialamide and Tranylcypromine\r\nproduce</em>&nbsp;a more typical profile, though with more variability.</p>\r\n\r\n<h3><a name=\"_Toc14686163\">Atypical\r\nAntidepressants</a></h3>\r\n\r\n<p>There are also other fairly new antidepressants that do not fit into any of the above-listed categories. Broadly described as atypical antidepressants, they affect serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine levels in unique ways.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<p>Examples of include:</p>\r\n\r\n<ul type=\"disc\">\r\n    <li>Wellbutrin (bupropion), classified as a&nbsp;\r\n        <strong>dopamine reuptake inhibitor</strong>, is used to treat depression and seasonal affective disorder as well as a smoking cessation aid.\r\n    </li>\r\n    <li>Remeron (mirtazapine) is a&nbsp;<strong>noradrenergic antagonist&nbsp;</strong>used for major depression, that blocks receptors of the stress hormone epinephrine (adrenaline) on the brain.</li>\r\n    <li>Oleptro (trazodone) and Brintellix (vortioxetine) are&nbsp;<strong>serotonin antagonist and reuptake\r\n     inhibitors&nbsp;</strong>(SARIs) used for major depression the both inhibit serotonin reuptake and block adrenergic receptors.</li>\r\n    <li>Symbax combines the SSRI fluoxetine with the antipsychotic drug fluoxetine to treat bipolar depression or treatment-resistant depression.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n\r\n<p>Side effects can vary by drug type but may include dizziness, dry mouth, insomnia, nausea, vomiting, constipation, blurry vision, weight gain, and sexual dysfunction.</p>\r\n\r\n<h1><a name=\"_Toc14686165\">Anesthetic &amp; Sedative Medication</a> </h1>\r\n<p><a name=\"_Toc14686165\"></a></p>\r\n<p><a name=\"_Toc14686165\">An&nbsp;<b>anesthetic</b>&nbsp;(American English) or&nbsp;<b>anaesthetic</b>&nbsp;(British English;&nbsp;see spelling differences) is a&nbsp;drug&nbsp;used to induce&nbsp;anesthesia&nbsp;- in other words, to result in a temporary loss of&nbsp;sensation&nbsp;or&nbsp;awareness. They may be divided into two broad classes:&nbsp;general anesthetics, which result in a reversible loss of&nbsp;consciousness, and&nbsp;local anesthetics, which cause a reversible loss of sensation for a limited region of the body without necessarily affecting consciousness.</a></p>\r\n<p><a name=\"_Toc14686165\">A wide variety of drugs are used in modern anesthetic practice. Many are rarely used outside&nbsp;anesthesiology, but others are used commonly in various fields of healthcare. Combinations of anesthetics are sometimes used for their&nbsp;synergistic&nbsp;and&nbsp;additive&nbsp;therapeutic effects. Adverse effects, however, may also be increased.&nbsp;Anesthetics are distinct from&nbsp;analgesics, which block only sensation of&nbsp;painful&nbsp;stimuli.</a></p>\r\n<p></p><br>\r\n\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc14686166\">Effects (most volatile)</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p>\r\n    <!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n    <!--[endif]-->Marked drop in gamma band activity (25 – 50Hz)</p>\r\n\r\n<p>\r\n    <!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n    <!--[endif]-->Increase in theta/delta frequencies&nbsp; (<u>Theta</u> comes from inhibition of normal thalamic pacemaker cells, <u>Delta</u> results from extreme depression of the thalamus). &nbsp;<b>Anesthetics</b>&nbsp;and their combinations which affect GABA<sub>A</sub>&nbsp;receptors\r\n    creates slowing that can mimic slow wave sleep, with burst suppression at higher concentrations</p>\r\n\r\n<p>\r\n    <!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n    <!--[endif]-->Increase in the power of the frontal electrodes (\r\n    <u>Beta</u>: is the result of sensory stimuli influencing the reticular activating system with desynchronization of thalamic pacemakers, maximal in the prefrontal regions)</p>\r\n\r\n<p>\r\n    <!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n    <!--[endif]-->Marked increase in hypercoherence/synchrony</p>\r\n\r\n<p><span>Each anesthetic agent will have a different effect\r\non the EEG. Their profile will change the closer they get to isoelectric.\r\nIncreasing the dose of anesthetics will produce slowing, then burst\r\nsuppression, then electro-cerebral silence (isoelectric EEG) </span></p>\r\n\r\n<p><span>These maps are a patient who was in a car accident and\r\nwas taking a combination of pain management medications. The blending of\r\nsedatives and hypnotics tends to produce an excessive slowing in the EEG.</span></p>\r\n<a href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T25jvLC6X0w\">\r\n    <h3><span><span style=\"\">Excessive slowing in the theta band as a result of combining\r\nhypnotics and sedatives</span>.<i> Image\r\ngenerated from Neuroguide version 3.0.6.</i></span>\r\n    </h3>\r\n    </a><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;</span><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><br></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><a href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T25jvLC6X0w\" style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/sedatives.png\" alt=\"sedatives and hypnotics\" width=\"500\" height=\"662\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></a></p><br><br><span><span>Excessive slowing into the theta band as a result of\r\ncombining hypnotics and sedatives.</span>&nbsp;</span><i style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.715rem;\">Image generated from Neuroguide version 3.0.6.<br></i><br>\r\n    <p style=\"text-align: center;\"><br></p>\r\n    <p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Meds2.png\" alt=\"Meds2\" width=\"500\" height=\"448\" style=\"font-size: 1rem;\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></p>\r\n    <h1><a name=\"_Toc14686167\">Stimulants</a> </h1>\r\n\r\n    <p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Adderall.jpg\" alt=\"Adderall\" width=\"400\" height=\"603\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></p>\r\n\r\n    <p>\r\n        <!--[if !supportLists]-->-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n        <!--[endif]-->Used for ADHD disorders mainly</p>\r\n\r\n    <p>\r\n        <!--[if !supportLists]-->-&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Different ADHD profiles:</p>\r\n\r\n    <p>\r\n        <!--[if !supportLists]-->o&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n        <!--[endif]-->High theta/beta ratio or theta/alpha ratio</p>\r\n\r\n    <p>\r\n        <!--[if !supportLists]-->o&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n        <!--[endif]-->Higher relative theta</p>\r\n\r\n    <p>\r\n        <!--[if !supportLists]-->o&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n        <!--[endif]-->Frontal spindling beta</p>\r\n\r\n    <p>\r\n        <!--[if !supportLists]-->o&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n        <!--[endif]-->Mu rhythm</p>\r\n\r\n    <p>\r\n        <!--[if !supportLists]-->o&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n        <!--[endif]-->Temporal lobe alpha</p>\r\n\r\n    <h2><a name=\"_Toc14686168\">Effects of Stimulants</a></h2>\r\n\r\n    <p></p>\r\n    <ul>\r\n        <li>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Normalization of EEG</li>\r\n        <li>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; No change from baseline</li>\r\n        <li>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Decrease in theta, theta/alpha, and theta/beta ratios</li>\r\n        <li>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Increase in beta amplitudes</li>\r\n    </ul>\r\n    <p></p>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n    <p>Stimulants increase the activity in the RAS, with the Raphe nucleus releasing norepinephrine, decreasing the polarization in the reticular nucleus of the thalamus and thus increasing the “clocking” or peak frequency of the rhythmic alpha activity\r\n        and increasing faster activity.</p>\r\n\r\n    <p><strong>Amphetamines:</strong>&nbsp;Both&nbsp;<em>dextro and methamphetamines</em>&nbsp;like&nbsp;<em>Dextrostat or Adderal</em>&nbsp;are similar in effect, with decreased slower activity and increased beta from 12-26 Hz. There is a paradoxical increase\r\n        in alpha noted in the QEEG work of Itil (Itil et al., 1980). This is likely from the increased activation effect mentioned in the opening section.</p>\r\n\r\n    <p><strong>Methylphenidate:</strong>&nbsp;<em>Ritalin</em>&nbsp;produces a decrease in delta and theta, with a more pronounced posterior alpha increase and an increase in low beta, with effects delayed up to 6 hours, compared to the rapid effects of\r\n        the amphetamines.\r\n    </p><br>\r\n    <p></p>',1),(361,83,0,362,20,0,1,1,1589391094,1656006437,'An Overview','<p></p>\r\n<h2><span style=\"color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem; font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;, sans-serif;\">Quantitative EEG\r\nanalysis (qEEG) refers to signal processing and extraction of features from the\r\nEEG signal, in some cases there is a normative group that the individual being\r\nsurveyed is compared to, and sometimes the data is digitized without a comparative\r\nreference.</span><br></h2>\r\n<p><span style=\"color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem; font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;, sans-serif;\">&nbsp;Here is a video of Jay Gunkelman talking about QEEGs:<br></span></p>\r\n<div style=\"padding:56.25% 0 0 0;position:relative;\"><iframe src=\"https://player.vimeo.com/video/429326339?h=674a4c9c71&amp;badge=0&amp;autopause=0&amp;player_id=0&amp;app_id=58479\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"autoplay; fullscreen; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen=\"\" style=\"position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:100%;\" title=\"JAY - DEFINITION OF QEEG (with intro and outro)\"></iframe></div>\r\n<script src=\"https://player.vimeo.com/api/player.js\"></script>\r\n<p><span style=\"color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem; font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;, sans-serif;\"><br></span></p>\r\n<p><span style=\"color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem; font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;, sans-serif;\">Here is a video of Bob Thatcher, inventor of Neuroguide, discussing Quantitative EEG:</span></p>\r\n<p><br></p><iframe src=\"https://player.vimeo.com/video/443179794?h=810cdfcb58&amp;color=13979b&amp;title=0&amp;portrait=0\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"autoplay; fullscreen; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen=\"\"></iframe>\r\n<p><a href=\"https://vimeo.com/443179794\">THATCHER - QEEG (with intro and outro)</a> from <a href=\"https://vimeo.com/user102563893\">NeuroField Neurotherapy</a> on <a href=\"https://vimeo.com\">Vimeo</a>.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>In the typical neurotherapy practice, 19 channel EEG is digitized, edited or adjusted to remove extra cerebral artifact, and subjected to spectral analysis using the fast Fourier transform (FFT).&nbsp;</p>\r\n<p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Fast%20Fourier%20Transform.png\" alt=\"Fast Fourier Transform\" width=\"1000\" height=\"677\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></p>\r\n<p><b><br></b></p>\r\n<p><b><br></b></p>\r\n<p><b><br></b></p>\r\n<p><b><br></b></p>\r\n<p><b><br></b></p>\r\n<p><b><br></b></p>\r\n<p><b><br></b></p>\r\n<p><b><br></b></p>\r\n<p><b><br></b></p>\r\n<p><b><br></b></p>\r\n<p><b><br></b></p>\r\n<p><b><br></b></p>\r\n<p><b><br></b></p>\r\n<p><b><br></b></p>\r\n<p><b><br></b></p>\r\n<p><b><br></b></p>\r\n<p><b><br></b></p>\r\n<p><b><br></b></p>\r\n<p><b><br></b></p>\r\n<p><b>Here is a video on Fast Fourier Transform:&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=spUNpyF58BY\">FFT Video</a>&nbsp;</b></p>\r\n<p>There are numerous clinical normative databases for many different medical comparisons; normative databases help to evaluate clinical disorders. &nbsp;The National Library of Medicine’s database has a comprehensive list of normative databases, that can\r\n    be found by search for “normative database: at: <a href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez\">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez</a>. In using a normative database, we are comparing a single person to a population of “normal” individuals\r\n    for comparative purposes. A normative database will not only identify frequencies or metrics in which the patient is not normal, but will also identify the degree of their deviance. </p><br>\r\n<p></p>',1),(362,83,361,363,20,0,1,1,1589391592,1635789930,'Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria for Normative Databases','<p></p><p>Normative\r\ndatabases are constructed and validated based upon the scientific standards of\r\ngaussianity, cross-validation, amplifier matching and peer-reviewed\r\npublications. A clinically normal database is one where individuals are\r\ncarefully screened for relevant abnormalities using other clinical tools such\r\nas psychometric assessment or MRIs.&nbsp;</p><p>The database should represent the mix of\r\nages, gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic status and other demographic factors\r\npresent in the overall population. <b>“Representative sampling”</b> means a\r\ndemographically balanced sample of different genders, different ethnic\r\nbackgrounds, different socio-economic status and different ages.&nbsp;</p><p>Using a\r\nrigorously screened population, deviations represent the difference from “well-functioning”\r\nas compared to “average.” Poor screening procedures result in admitting individuals\r\ninto a normal group who have significant clinical problems. Careful screening\r\nof the subjects that comprise a normative database is critical so that\r\nrepresentative samples of healthy and otherwise normally functioning\r\nindividuals are selected and individuals with a history of neurological\r\nproblems, psychiatric problems, school failure and other deviant behaviors are\r\nexcluded.&nbsp;</p><p>While it may be too expensive and exhaustive to require that all\r\nindividuals have full MRI, PET, fMRI, complete neuropsychological evaluation,\r\ngenetic analysis, blood and urine testing, etc., it would be ideal. A second-best\r\noption, then, is to get questionnaire information and objective assessments of\r\ngeneral health, and social and intellectual functioning. It is especially important\r\nto get many children sampled in a normative database, because dramatic\r\ndevelopmental changes occur in children and adolescents in relatively short\r\ntime intervals. Where two years difference will not alter the demographics of\r\nan adult, it can signify important differences in, say, a 4-year-old and a 6-year-old.\r\n</p>\r\n\r\n<p>It\r\nis important for a database to have a large sample size, although ultimately\r\nthis criterion is less important than careful calibration, elimination of\r\nartifact, rigorous standards during data collection and rigorous standards for\r\ndata analysis and approximation to a Gaussian distribution. To be considered a\r\nclinically valid normative database, there must be peer review (published),\r\ntests of reliability, tests of statistical validity, cross-validation tests,\r\nfull disclosure of the inclusion and exclusion criteria, and adequate sample\r\nsizes for different age groups. Normative databases must use healthy\r\nparticipants who do not have any psychological or physiological pathologies. </p><p>Many normative\r\ndatabases available for clinical use contain the mean values of EEG features\r\n(absolute power, relative power, coherence measures, etc.); the “normative”\r\nquantification of theta data is the standard deviation of the features relative\r\nto the normal population (see John, Prichep, &amp; Easton, 1987). Certain\r\ndatabases provide magnitude, (the square root of power), while others provide\r\namplitude (which is power measured in microvolts squared).&nbsp;&nbsp;</p><p>Relative power represents the percentage of\r\npower in any bands compared with the total power in the patient’s EEG (e.g.,\r\n“relative theta” is the percentage of theta of the combined sum of delta,\r\ntheta, alpha, and beta). One way to describe relative power is “how the client\r\nspends their time.”&nbsp;</p><p>Other derived measures that have been normed include\r\nhemispheric asymmetry for power (which often reflects the power differential\r\nbetween different sites in the brain), coherence (the stability of the phase\r\nrelationship between electrode sites, and phase (the measure of time delay\r\nbetween activities at two sites). It should be recognized that these measures\r\nare not statistically independent, and significant deviations on more than one\r\nfeature may be representing the same neurophysiological process (i.e.\r\nhypercoherence in alpha may also be represented in a global alpha amplitude\r\ndeviation, due to a contaminated reference). &nbsp;</p><p><a href=\"https://vimeo.com/443179794\" target=\"_blank\">Click here to watch a brief in depth video of normative databases</a></p><p></p><h2><a name=\"_Toc35342982\">Asymmetry in Quantitative EEG Maps (NeuroGuide)</a></h2><br><p></p><p style=\"text-align: center; \"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Asymmetry.png\" alt=\"Asymmetry\" width=\"500\" height=\"378\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"></p><h2><br></h2><p><a name=\"_Toc35342982\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Coherence.png\" alt=\"Coherence in WinEEG\" width=\"291\" height=\"270\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></a></p><h2><a name=\"_Toc35342983\">Coherence measures in Quantitative EEG Maps\r\n(WinEEG and iSyncBrain)</a></h2><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Coherence%202.png\" alt=\"Asymmetry\" width=\"427\" height=\"379\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_right\"><br><p></p><p>While some normative databases rely on a\r\nlinked ears reference, the savvy clinician will reference a database that has\r\nmultiple montage possibility (in the case of contaminated reference).&nbsp;Coherence measures the stability of the phase relationship between two time series, calculating the difference between two signals measured at the scalp. &nbsp;Coherence in excess is hypercoherence; coherence in deficiency is hypocoherence.&nbsp;Coherence measures do not separate phase and amplitude.&nbsp;</p><p>Unfortunately, coherence measures are also apt to be spurious and false positives are likely.&nbsp;In EEG measures, a linked ears or mastoid reference used can significantly alter the both the power and phase at each electrode site, if a high amplitude source of EEG is at one or more of the temporal electrodes. For similar reasons, any common reference coherence data must be interpreted cautiously. Even in average references, spuriously large coherences can occur from superficial dipoles at large interelectrode differences.&nbsp;&nbsp; Fein et al. (1988) argue the most diligent way to measure coherences is with reference-free recording methods, while Nunez et al (1997) agree, noting that Laplacians give the best intermediate spatial range coherence estimates.&nbsp; Finally , of import to valuation of synchrony measures offered, coherence measures do not separate phase and amplitude.<br></p><p><br></p><h4>Erroneous Coherences (Image Below)</h4><p></p><p></p><h2><a name=\"_Toc35342984\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Erroneous%20Coherences.png\" alt=\"Erroneous Coherences\" width=\"700\" height=\"683\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc35342984\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc35342984\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc35342984\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc35342984\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc35342984\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc35342984\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc35342984\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc35342984\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc35342984\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc35342984\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc35342984\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc35342984\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc35342984\">Phase Measures in Quantitative EEG Maps\r\n(Neuroguide)</a></h2><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Phase.png\" alt=\"Phase\" width=\"501\" height=\"379\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\" style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"></p><p></p><p></p><h2><a name=\"_Toc35342985\">Quantitative “Normative” and Non-Normative Database\r\nValidation Steps</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p>A quantitative database should\r\nrepresent the mix of ages, gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic status and other\r\ndemographic factors present in the overall population. The method of\r\nrecruitment of normal individuals also should be considered. Poor screening\r\nprocedures will result in admitting individuals into a normal group who have\r\nsigniﬁcant clinical problems. Regardless the method of recruitment, care must\r\nbe exercised not to entice individuals to participate and falsify information\r\nbecause of the ﬁnancial gain. Normative databases are to be constructed and\r\nvalidated in respect to the basic scientific standards of gaussianity,\r\ncross-validation, amplifier matching and peer-reviewed publications.</p><br><p></p>',1),(363,83,362,364,20,0,1,1,1589392048,1656006749,'Statistical Analysis of Normative Databases','<p></p>\r\n<p>Spectral power is an often used measure in qEEG studies. The amount of power for each frequency or frequency band for a given electrode is computed and compared to the database mean value. The results are often represented as z-scores, that is the difference\r\n    between the mean score of a population and the patient’s individual score divided by the standard deviation of the population. Z-scores detect and characterize potential abnormalities from the tested individual, relative to the normative population\r\n    within his/her own age range. It is not strictly the number of deviations, rather the pattern of deviations that is most relevant. The use of parametric statistics assumes a normal (Gaussian) distribution of the variable(s) in question. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>The&nbsp;Gaussian&nbsp;distribution&nbsp;is&nbsp;a&nbsp;fundamental&nbsp;distribution&nbsp;that&nbsp;is&nbsp;used&nbsp;throughout&nbsp;science,&nbsp;for&nbsp;example,&nbsp;the&nbsp;Schrodinger&nbsp;wave&nbsp;equation&nbsp;in&nbsp;Quantum&nbsp;mechanics&nbsp;uses&nbsp;the&nbsp;Gaussian&nbsp;distribution&nbsp;\r\n    <span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">as&nbsp;basis&nbsp;functions&nbsp;(Robinett,&nbsp;1997).&nbsp;&nbsp;The&nbsp;application&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;EEG&nbsp;to&nbsp;the&nbsp;concept&nbsp;of&nbsp;the\r\nGaussian&nbsp;distribution&nbsp;requires&nbsp;the&nbsp;use&nbsp;of&nbsp;standard&nbsp;mathematical&nbsp;transforms&nbsp;by&nbsp;which\r\nall\r\nstatistical&nbsp;distributions&nbsp;can&nbsp;be&nbsp;transformed&nbsp;to&nbsp;a&nbsp;Gaussian&nbsp;distribution&nbsp;(Box&nbsp;and&nbsp;Cox,&nbsp;1964).\r\nQuantitative EEG uses transforms that are applied to the power spectrum of the\r\ndigital time series in order to approximate a normal distribution.</span></p>\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc35342987\">Gaussian distribution</a></h2>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;</span><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Gaussian%20Distribution.png\" alt=\"Gaussian Distribution\" width=\"500\" height=\"364\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\" style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;\"></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center; \"><br></p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center; \"><br></p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center; \"><br></p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Here is a video describing Gaussianity:&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IIuXF5QRBTY\">Gaussianity</a></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">The next two figures are representations of raw, un-normed data, and Z-score data, respectively, in spectral graphs. The raw image shows the absolute power of the EEG in microvolts squared. We see that 10Hz shows up at approximately 16mV<sup>2\r\n</sup>. The second image shows the data in Z-scores, or how deviant from the norm these frequencies are. We can see that the purple line (representing one electrode) is 3+ standard deviations above the norm between 14 – 16 Hz, and 4+ standard deviations\r\n    above the norm at 28 Hz. Both of these findings are potentially artifactual, but this cannot be determined without an analysis of the raw EEG.</p>\r\n<h2 style=\"text-align: left;\"><a name=\"_Toc35342988\" style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-size: 2.143rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\">Spectral Power in Microvolts squared\r\n(y-axis) and hertz (x-axis)</a><br></h2>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;</span><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Spectral%20Power.png\" alt=\"Spectral Power\" width=\"599\" height=\"553\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\" style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;\"></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center; \"><br></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<h2 style=\"text-align: left;\"><a name=\"_Toc35342989\">Spectral Power in Z-Scores (y-axis) and\r\nhertz (x-axis)</a></h2>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;</span><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Z-Score%20Spectral%20Power.png\" alt=\"Z-Score Spectral Power\" width=\"595\" height=\"541\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\" style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;\"></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center; \"><br></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">The next figure we see is showing, one graph per electrode channel, the raw data in the EEG on a spectral display. This imagery is from WinEEG. Each peak represents a rhythm in the data, showing kurtosis, or the expected bell shape that indicates it is\r\n    a frequency range.</p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p>\r\n<h2 style=\"text-align: left;\"><a name=\"_Toc35342990\">Spectra of Raw EEG (not norm referenced)\r\nas seen at each electrode in WinEEG</a></h2>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;</span><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/WinEEG%20Spectra.png\" alt=\"WinEEG Spectra\" width=\"1000\" height=\"636\" style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center; \"><br></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">The figure below illustrates a common modern quantitative EEG analysis where EEG traces are viewed and examined at the same time that quantitative analyses are displayed so as to facilitate and extend analytical power.</p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left;\"><a name=\"_Toc35342991\">Raw EEG and Quantitative EEG</a></h3>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><a name=\"_Toc35342991\" style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Raw%20vs.%20Quantitative.png\" alt=\"Raw EEG vs. Quantitative EEG\" width=\"1000\" height=\"604\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></a></p>\r\n<a name=\"_Toc35342991\">\r\n    <p style=\"text-align: center;\"><br></p>\r\n    </a>\r\n    <p></p>\r\n    <p style=\"text-align: center; \"><a name=\"_Toc35342991\"><br></a></p>',1),(364,83,363,365,20,0,1,1,1589394000,1593960223,' An Early History of QEEG Databases (derived from Thatcher, 2004)','<p></p><p>Here is a quick video on how EEG became QEEG:&nbsp;<a href=\"https://vimeo.com/429326339\">QEEG VIdeo</a></p><p>The earliest\r\nquantitative EEG (QEEG) reference normative database was developed in the 1950s\r\nat UCLA as part of the NASA study and selection of astronauts for purposes of\r\nspace travel (Adey et al, 1961; 1964a; 1964b). Clinical inclusion and exclusion\r\ncriteria were not used because there was no intended clinical application of\r\nthis early QEEG reference normative database. However, the essential\r\nquantitative foundations of QEEG normative databases were tested such as the\r\ncalculation of means and standard deviations and measures of Gaussianity,\r\ncomplex demodulation, fourier spectral analysis and basic statistical\r\nparameters necessary for any reference normative database.</p><h2><a name=\"_Toc35342993\">History of Sample Size per Age Group</a> </h2>\r\n\r\n<p>There is no\r\nabsolute sample size that is best for a QEEG database because statistically\r\nsample size is related to the “effect size” and “power” (Hayes, 1973; Winer,\r\n1971). The smaller the effect size then the larger the sample size necessary to\r\ndetect that effect. The power of a statistical measure varies as a function of\r\nsample size and the effect size (Cohen, 1977). Another issue related to sample\r\nsize is the degree to which a sample approximates a Gaussian distribution. Increased\r\nsample size is often necessary in order to achieve closer approximations to\r\nGaussian which in turn is related to the accuracy of cross-validation. Thus,\r\nthe sample size is one of several inter-related issues in all normative\r\ndatabases and the sample size should not be singled out as being the most\r\nimportant factor in a QEEG normative database.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>In regard to\r\npediatric EEGs, there are rapid changes in EEG measures during early childhood.\r\nFor this reason, a relatively large sample sizes is required during the period\r\nof time when the brain is changing most rapidly, as well as during old age when\r\npotential rapid declines in neural function may occur.<b></b></p><h2><a name=\"_Toc35342994\">History of Gaussian Distribution Approximation and\r\nCross-Validation</a></h2><h3>Dr. Frank Duffy</h3><br><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Dr.%20Frank%20Duffy.png\" alt=\"Dr. Frank Duffy\" width=\"175\" height=\"251\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"></span><p>The statistics of replication and independent cross-validation of normative QEEG databases was first applied by E. Roy John and collaborators in 1974 to 1977 (John, 1977; John et al, 1977; 1987). The importance of approximation to a Gaussian distribution was emphasized by both Dr. E. Roy John and Dr. Frank Duffy a Harvard Neurologist in the 1970s and 1980s. In 1994 the American EEG Association produced a position paper in which the statistical standards of replication, cross-validation, reliability and Gaussian approximation were iterated as&nbsp;<span>acceptable basic standards to be met by any normative QEEG database (Duffy, 1994). The American EEG Society included the same standards.&nbsp;</span><br><br><br></p><h3><br></h3><h3><br></h3><h3>E. Roy John</h3><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/E.%20Roy%20John.gif\" alt=\"E. Roy John\" width=\"150\" height=\"200\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"></p><p><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"><br></span></p><p><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"><br></span></p><p><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"><br></span></p><p><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"><br></span></p><p><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"><br></span></p><p><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"><br></span></p><p><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">Milos Matousek&nbsp;and Ingemar Petersen&nbsp;(1973)&nbsp;computed&nbsp;means&nbsp;and&nbsp;standard&nbsp;deviations&nbsp;in&nbsp;one-year&nbsp;age&nbsp;groups&nbsp;and&nbsp;were&nbsp;the&nbsp;first&nbsp;to&nbsp;use&nbsp;Z&nbsp;scores&nbsp;to&nbsp;compare&nbsp;an&nbsp;individual&nbsp;to&nbsp;the&nbsp;normative&nbsp;</span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">database&nbsp;means&nbsp;and&nbsp;standard&nbsp;deviations.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The&nbsp;Z&nbsp;score&nbsp;is&nbsp;an&nbsp;excellent&nbsp;statistic&nbsp;defined&nbsp;as</span><br></p>\r\n\r\n<p>the&nbsp;difference&nbsp;between&nbsp;the&nbsp;value&nbsp;from&nbsp;an&nbsp;individual&nbsp;and&nbsp;the&nbsp;mean&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;population&nbsp;<span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">divided&nbsp;by&nbsp;the&nbsp;standard&nbsp;deviation&nbsp;of\r\nthe&nbsp;population&nbsp;or&nbsp;</span></p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Equation%201.png\" alt=\"Equation 1\" width=\"102\" height=\"65\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br><p></p><p><br></p><p></p><h2><a name=\"_Toc35342995\"></a><a name=\"_Toc3535217\">Inclusion and exclusion criteria for normative databases</a>\r\n</h2>\r\n\r\n<p>John&nbsp;and&nbsp;colleagues&nbsp;expanded&nbsp;on&nbsp;the&nbsp;use&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Z-score&nbsp;for&nbsp;clinical&nbsp;evaluation&nbsp;including&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<p>the&nbsp;use&nbsp;of&nbsp;multivariate&nbsp;measures&nbsp;such&nbsp;as&nbsp;the&nbsp;Mahalanobis&nbsp;distance&nbsp;metric,&nbsp; a direct&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<p>normalization&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Gaussian&nbsp;distribution&nbsp;using&nbsp;Z&nbsp;scores&nbsp;is&nbsp;useful&nbsp;in&nbsp;comparing&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<p>individuals&nbsp;to&nbsp;a&nbsp;QEEG&nbsp;normative&nbsp;database.&nbsp;That&nbsp;is,&nbsp;the&nbsp;standard&nbsp;score&nbsp;form&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<p>Gaussian&nbsp;is&nbsp;where&nbsp;the&nbsp;mean&nbsp;=&nbsp;0&nbsp;and&nbsp;standard&nbsp;deviation&nbsp;=&nbsp;1&nbsp;or,&nbsp;by&nbsp;substitution&nbsp;into&nbsp;the&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<p>Gaussian&nbsp;equation&nbsp;for&nbsp;a&nbsp;bell&nbsp;shaped&nbsp;curve,&nbsp;then&nbsp;</p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Equation%202.png\" alt=\"Equation 2\" width=\"120\" height=\"79\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br><p></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p></p><p>where&nbsp;Y&nbsp;=&nbsp;Gaussian&nbsp;distribution&nbsp;and&nbsp;the&nbsp;Z&nbsp;score&nbsp;is&nbsp;a&nbsp;deviation&nbsp;in&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<p>standard&nbsp;deviation&nbsp;units&nbsp;measured&nbsp;along&nbsp;the&nbsp;baseline&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Gaussian&nbsp;curve&nbsp;from&nbsp;a&nbsp;mean&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<p>of&nbsp;0&nbsp;and&nbsp;a&nbsp;standard&nbsp;deviation&nbsp;=&nbsp;1&nbsp;and&nbsp;deviations&nbsp;to&nbsp;the&nbsp;right&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;mean&nbsp;being&nbsp;positive&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<p>and&nbsp;those&nbsp;to&nbsp;the&nbsp;left&nbsp;negative.&nbsp;&nbsp;By&nbsp;substituting&nbsp;different&nbsp;values&nbsp;of&nbsp;Z&nbsp;then&nbsp;different&nbsp;values&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<p>of&nbsp;Y&nbsp;can&nbsp;be&nbsp;calculated.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;For&nbsp;example,&nbsp;when&nbsp;Z&nbsp;=&nbsp;0,&nbsp;Y&nbsp;=&nbsp;0.3989&nbsp;or,&nbsp;in&nbsp;other&nbsp;words,&nbsp;the&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<p>height&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;curve&nbsp;at&nbsp;the&nbsp;mean&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;normal&nbsp;distribution&nbsp;in&nbsp;standard ­score&nbsp;form&nbsp;is&nbsp;given&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<p>by&nbsp;the&nbsp;number&nbsp;0.3989.&nbsp;&nbsp;For&nbsp;purposes&nbsp;of&nbsp;assessing&nbsp;deviation&nbsp;from&nbsp;normal,&nbsp;the&nbsp;values&nbsp;of&nbsp;Z&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<p>above&nbsp;and&nbsp;below&nbsp;the&nbsp;mean,&nbsp;which&nbsp;include&nbsp;95%&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;area&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Gaussian&nbsp; curve is&nbsp;often&nbsp;used&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<p>as&nbsp;a&nbsp;level&nbsp;of&nbsp;confidence&nbsp;necessary&nbsp;to&nbsp;minimize&nbsp;Type&nbsp;I&nbsp;and&nbsp;Type&nbsp;II&nbsp;errors.</p><br><p></p><p></p><p>The Gaussian\r\ndistribution is a fundamental distribution that is used throughout science. The\r\napplication of EEG to Gaussian distribution requires the use of standard\r\nmathematical transforms by which all statistical distributions can be\r\ntransformed into Gaussian distributions. The pyramidal neurons exhibit rhythmic\r\nbursts and periods of asynchrony in a non-Gaussian distribution as a function\r\nof time. In order to run Z-score analysis or Z-score neurofeedback, it is\r\nmandatory to transform EEG digital data to approximate a Gaussian shape (a bell\r\ncurve). </p><h2><a name=\"_Toc35342996\">Gaussian Distribution across metrics</a></h2><p></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><a name=\"_Toc35342996\" style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Gaussian%20Dist.png\" alt=\"Gaussian Dist\" width=\"500\" height=\"393\" style=\"text-align: center; \" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></a></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><a name=\"_Toc35342996\" style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem;\"><br></a></p><p></p><p><br></p><p></p><p>The figure below is\r\na summary and overview of the procedures that are used to eliminate artifact,\r\nmaximize reliability, approximate Gaussian distributions, cross-validate and\r\ncompute clinical correlations as a standard set of procedures and sequences to\r\nmake normative database creation more easy. </p><a name=\"_Toc35342997\"></a><br><p></p><p></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><a name=\"_Toc3535218\" style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;&nbsp;<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Validation%20Steps.png\" alt=\"Validation Steps\" width=\"500\" height=\"535\" style=\"text-align: center; \" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc3535218\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc3535218\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc3535218\"></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc3535218\">The figure below is\r\na list of the Gold Standards of a QEEG Normative Database, as developed by\r\nRobert Thatcher.</a></p><a name=\"_Toc3535218\">\r\n\r\n</a><h2><a name=\"_Toc3535218\"></a><a name=\"_Toc35342998\">Gold Standards of QEEG Normative\r\nDatabases, from Thatcher</a> </h2><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Gold%20Standards.png\" alt=\"Gold Standards\" width=\"501\" height=\"273\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\" style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"></p><p></p><p><a name=\"_Toc3535218\"></a></p><h2><a name=\"_Toc35342999\"></a><a name=\"_Toc3535219\">Basic statistical analysis</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p>The&nbsp;selected&nbsp;normal&nbsp;subjects&nbsp;are&nbsp;grouped&nbsp;by&nbsp;age&nbsp;with\r\nsufficiently&nbsp;large&nbsp;sample&nbsp;size&nbsp;and&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<p>the&nbsp;means&nbsp;and&nbsp;standard&nbsp;deviations&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;EEG&nbsp;time&nbsp;series&nbsp;and/or&nbsp;Frequency&nbsp;domain&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<p>analyses&nbsp;are&nbsp;computed&nbsp;for&nbsp;each&nbsp;age&nbsp;group.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Transforms&nbsp;are&nbsp;applied&nbsp;to&nbsp;approximate&nbsp;a&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<p>Gaussian&nbsp;distribution&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;EEG&nbsp;measures&nbsp;that&nbsp;comprise&nbsp;the&nbsp;means.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Once&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<p>approximation&nbsp;to&nbsp;Gaussian&nbsp;is&nbsp;completed,&nbsp;then&nbsp;Z&nbsp;scores&nbsp;are&nbsp;computed&nbsp;for&nbsp;each&nbsp;subject&nbsp;in&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<p>the&nbsp;database&nbsp;and&nbsp;leave&nbsp;one&nbsp;out&nbsp;Gaussian&nbsp;Cross ­Validation&nbsp;is&nbsp;computed&nbsp;in&nbsp;order&nbsp;to&nbsp;arrive&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<p>at&nbsp;an&nbsp;optimum&nbsp;Gaussian&nbsp;Cross ­validation&nbsp;sensitivity.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Finally,\r\nthe&nbsp;Gaussian&nbsp;validated&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<p>norms&nbsp;are&nbsp;subjected&nbsp;to&nbsp;content&nbsp;and&nbsp;predictive&nbsp;validation&nbsp;procedures&nbsp;such&nbsp;as&nbsp;correlation&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<p>with&nbsp;neuropsychological&nbsp;test&nbsp;scores&nbsp;and&nbsp;intelligence,&nbsp;etc.&nbsp;and&nbsp;also&nbsp;discriminant&nbsp;analyses&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<p>and&nbsp;neural&nbsp;networks&nbsp;and&nbsp;outcome&nbsp;statistics,&nbsp;etc.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The&nbsp;content&nbsp;validations&nbsp;are&nbsp;with&nbsp;respect&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<p>to&nbsp;clinical&nbsp;measures&nbsp;such&nbsp;as&nbsp;intelligence,&nbsp;neuropsychological&nbsp;test&nbsp;scores,&nbsp;school&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<p>achievement,&nbsp;clinical&nbsp;outcomes,&nbsp;etc.&nbsp;&nbsp;The&nbsp;predictive&nbsp;validations&nbsp;are&nbsp;with&nbsp;respect&nbsp;to&nbsp;the&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<p>discriminative,&nbsp;statistical&nbsp;or&nbsp;neural&nbsp;network&nbsp;clinical&nbsp;classification&nbsp;accuracy.&nbsp;&nbsp;Both&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<p>parametric&nbsp;and&nbsp;non­parametric&nbsp;statistics&nbsp;are&nbsp;used&nbsp;to&nbsp;determine&nbsp;the&nbsp;content&nbsp;and&nbsp;predictive&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<p>validity&nbsp;of&nbsp;a&nbsp;normative&nbsp;EEG&nbsp;database.&nbsp;</p><br><p></p><p><a name=\"_Toc3535218\"><br></a></p>',1),(365,83,364,366,20,0,1,1,1589399608,1656007790,'Major Databases','<p></p>\r\n<h2></h2>\r\n<h3><a name=\"_Toc35343001\">I. Neuroguide</a></h3>\r\n<iframe src=\"https://player.vimeo.com/video/410223335?h=d32379c382&amp;color=13979b&amp;title=0&amp;portrait=0\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"autoplay; fullscreen; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen=\"\"></iframe>\r\n<p><br></p>\r\n<p>Robert Thatcher’s Neuroguide database was collected at the University of Maryland in 1990, where initially a sample of 625 normal subjects constituted the normative database. This database included clinical selection criteria, an age range of 2 months\r\n    to 282 years, cross-validation tests, demographics.</p>\r\n<p><br>The NeuroGuide database has been tested and re-tested and the sensitivity of the statistical distributions has been calculated for each montage and condition. Normalcy was determined by response to a neurological history questionnaire which was given\r\n    to the child’s parents and/or filled out by each subject. IQ and other age appropriate psychometric testing, academic achievement, as well as classroom performance as determined by school grades and teacher reports also were used in determining normalcy.\r\n    Nine hundred and forty-three (943) variables were computed for each subject including measures of absolute and relative power, coherence, phase, asymmetry, and power ratios. Z-score transforms are available in single Hz bins. Sliding averages were\r\n    used to compute age-appropriate norms. Results were inspected for Gaussian distribution (for further details see Thatcher, Walker, Biver, North, &amp; Curtin, Sensitivity and cross-validation of a lifespan normative EEG database — at: http://www.applied\r\n    neuroscience.com/LSNDB.htm.) Recording with task challenges was not performed. The construction and composition of this database are relatively well documented.<br>The NeuroGuide software allows the user to import previously recorded EEG data, edit\r\n    and analyze data, and process the data into maps and necessary statistics. Neuroguide is built from 625 normative comparisons of relative power, absolute power, power ratios, coherence, and phase and amplitude asymmetry.<br>Some of the attributes\r\n    of Neuroguide include automatic artifact rejection, dynamic FFTs with comparisons to FFT lifespan, and Eyes Open and Eyes Closed Norms covering ages from birth to 82 years of age. NeuroGuide includes a Traumatic Brain Injury and Learning Disability\r\n    discriminant functions, as well as an integrated statistical package. It also includes predictions of neuropsychological test scores using the Brain Performance Index.</p>\r\n<p><br>One of the tools is EEG Neuroimaging to evaluate Brodmann Areas and nodes and connections of functional networks in the brain likely linked to symptoms, statically or in real-time.</p>\r\n<p><br>NeuroGuide provides a retrospective view of EEG waveforms and offline artifact rejection. NeuroGuide also offers calculations of Spectral Energy, Power and Coherence along with discriminant Functions, Signal Generator, LORETA Norms, and Brain Performance\r\n    Index (QEEG Information).</p>\r\n<p><br>NeuroGuide uses a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) with .5Hz and 1Hz resolution to provide color headmaps with a bandwidth of 0-40Hz, a Joint-Time-Frequency Analysis component to identify time events greater or less than a threshold value, as well as\r\n    LORETA analysis. Montage selection and creation are allowed, as well, including bipolar montages, current source density montages and average reference montages in eyes closed and eyes open conditions.\r\n</p>\r\n<p><br>The&nbsp;mathematical&nbsp;details&nbsp;of&nbsp;complex&nbsp;demodulation&nbsp;used&nbsp;to&nbsp;compute&nbsp;the&nbsp;instantaneous&nbsp;Z&nbsp; scores&nbsp;as&nbsp;contained&nbsp;in&nbsp;the&nbsp;Applied&nbsp;Neuroscience,&nbsp;Inc.&nbsp;“dll”&nbsp;are&nbsp;published&nbsp;in&nbsp;Otnes&nbsp;and&nbsp;<br>Enochson,&nbsp;(1977);Granger&nbsp;and&nbsp;Hatanaka,&nbsp;(1964);&nbsp;Bloomfield,&nbsp;2000;&nbsp;Thatcher&nbsp;et&nbsp;al,&nbsp;<br>(2007).&nbsp;Complex&nbsp;demodulation&nbsp;is&nbsp;a&nbsp;time&nbsp;domain&nbsp;digital&nbsp;method&nbsp;of&nbsp;spectral&nbsp;analysis&nbsp;<br>whereas&nbsp;the&nbsp;fast&nbsp;Fourier&nbsp;transform&nbsp;(FFT)&nbsp;is&nbsp;a&nbsp;frequency&nbsp;domain&nbsp;method.&nbsp;&nbsp;These&nbsp;two&nbsp;<br>methods&nbsp;are&nbsp;related&nbsp;by&nbsp;the&nbsp;fact&nbsp;they&nbsp;both&nbsp;involve&nbsp;sines&nbsp;and&nbsp;cosines&nbsp;and&nbsp;both&nbsp;operate&nbsp;in&nbsp;<br>the&nbsp;complex&nbsp;domain&nbsp;and&nbsp;in&nbsp;this&nbsp;way&nbsp;represent&nbsp;the&nbsp;same&nbsp;mathematical&nbsp;descriptions&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;<br>power&nbsp;spectrum.&nbsp;&nbsp;The&nbsp;advantage&nbsp;of&nbsp;complex&nbsp;demodulation&nbsp;is&nbsp;that&nbsp;it&nbsp;is&nbsp;a&nbsp;time&nbsp;domain&nbsp;<br>method&nbsp;and&nbsp;less&nbsp;sensitive&nbsp;to&nbsp;artifact&nbsp;and&nbsp;it&nbsp;does&nbsp;not&nbsp;require&nbsp;windowing&nbsp;nor&nbsp;even&nbsp;integers&nbsp;<br>of&nbsp;the&nbsp;power&nbsp;of&nbsp;2&nbsp;as&nbsp;does&nbsp;the&nbsp;FFT.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The&nbsp;FFT&nbsp;integrates&nbsp;power&nbsp;in&nbsp;a&nbsp;frequency&nbsp;band&nbsp;over&nbsp;<br>the&nbsp;entire&nbsp;epoch&nbsp;length&nbsp;and&nbsp;requires&nbsp;windowing&nbsp;functions&nbsp;which&nbsp;can&nbsp;dramatically&nbsp;effect&nbsp;<br>the&nbsp;power&nbsp;values&nbsp;whereas,&nbsp;as&nbsp;mentioned&nbsp;previously,&nbsp;complex&nbsp;demodulation&nbsp;does&nbsp;not\r\n    require&nbsp;windowing&nbsp;(Otnes&nbsp;and&nbsp;Enochson,&nbsp;1972).&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Complex&nbsp;demodulation&nbsp;was&nbsp;computed&nbsp;\r\n    <br>for&nbsp;the&nbsp;linked&nbsp;ears&nbsp;and&nbsp;eyes&nbsp;open&nbsp;and&nbsp;eyes&nbsp;closed&nbsp;conditions&nbsp;for&nbsp;all&nbsp;625&nbsp;subjects&nbsp;in&nbsp;the&nbsp;<br>normative&nbsp;database.&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc35343002\"></a><a name=\"_Toc33954368\">II. SKIL</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p>Information in this description taken from<br><i>Use of Databases in QEEG Evaluation, </i>Jack Johnstone, PhD &amp;<i> </i>Jay Gunkelman, QEEG-D</p>\r\n<p><br>The SKIL database currently includes 135 adults ranging from 18 to 55 years old (see Sterman &amp;<br> Kaiser, 2001). No normative information is currently available for children or young adults. SKIL does not consider age as a factor in computing\r\n    z-score deviations. The reference population is comprised of students and laboratory personnel (50%), volunteers recruited from the community (25%), and U.S. Air Force personnel (25%). Screening was based on questionnaire regarding medical history,\r\n    drug use, and recent life events.</p>\r\n<p><br>&nbsp;The SKIL database incorporates recordings at rest (eyes closed and open) and during task&nbsp; challenges involving audio-visual information processing and visual-spatial tracking. A correction for the time of day of recording is available which\r\n    is based on combined cross-sectional and longitudinal data rather than the preferred method of tracking within-subject changes over time.&nbsp; The SKIL database covers a restricted range of frequencies, from 2 Hz to 25 Hz. This method deletes signiﬁcant\r\n    slow and fast frequency data which may be of clinical importance. However, the database does have the advantage of providing norms for each single Hz increment over this frequency range. The SKIL database relies exclusively on the linked ear reference.\r\n    The SKIL analysis has not received FDA 510(k) clearance and is labeled as “not intended for medical use.”</p>\r\n<p><br> &nbsp;The SKIL database does not have a measure of EEG coherence but rather includes a similarity measure termed “comodulation,” which is quite like coherence but does not yield a measure of phase.&nbsp; Comodulation is essentially the correlation\r\n    of the spectrum for two recording electrodes over time using a sliding one second data window moved in 250 millisecond increments. Although this effectively deals with windowing issues, it also is clear that the degree of correlation between electrode\r\n    sites is not computed on independent, but rather overlapping, spectral analyses.</p>\r\n<p><br> &nbsp;Since the SKIL database relies exclusively on the linked ear reference, the comodulation similarity measure is strongly inﬂuenced by the fact that both sites are connected to a common source. This can lead to shared variance, which can cause\r\n    erroneous comodulation results. Nevertheless, the comodulation metric is currently being explored for possible clinical utility.\r\n</p>\r\n<p><br> &nbsp;As discussed previously, there must be a balance between the number of individuals in a database and the number of variables used in assessment to account for multiple statistical tests. The SKIL database has the advantage of a large number\r\n    of features (e.g., multiple conditions, 1 Hz bins) but has the disadvantage of a relatively small number of individuals represented in the database. This tends to increase the number of false positive ﬁndings. A solution to the problem of false positive\r\n    results is to replicate ﬁndings on independent samples of data from the individual patient.\r\n</p>\r\n\r\n<p><i></i></p>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n<h3><a name=\"_Toc33954369\">Image of Bands of Power in SKIL</a></h3>\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc35343003\"></a></h2>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><a name=\"_Toc33954369\" style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/SKIL.png\" alt=\"SKIL\" width=\"538\" height=\"439\" style=\"text-align: center; \" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></a></p>\r\n<a name=\"_Toc33954369\">\r\n    <p style=\"text-align: center;\"><br></p>\r\n</a>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<h3><a name=\"_Toc33954370\" style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-size: 2.143rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\">Image of Theta Unity measure in SKIL</a></h3>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><a name=\"_Toc33954370\" style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Theta%20UNity.png\" alt=\"Theta Unity\" width=\"500\" height=\"467\" style=\"text-align: center; \" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></a></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p><br></p>\r\n<p><br></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<h3><a name=\"_Toc33954371\">Image of spectra at each site from SKIL</a></h3>\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc35343005\"></a></h2>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><a name=\"_Toc33954371\" style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Spectra%20in%20SKIL.png\" alt=\"Spectra in SKIL\" width=\"600\" height=\"312\" style=\"text-align: center; \" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></a></p>\r\n<a name=\"_Toc33954371\">\r\n    <p style=\"text-align: center;\"><br></p>\r\n</a>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc35343006\" style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-size: 2.143rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\">III. iSync Brain Database (South Korean Database)</a><br></h2>\r\n<div style=\"padding:56.25% 0 0 0;position:relative;\"><iframe src=\"https://player.vimeo.com/video/429332161?h=cd9ca06aab&amp;badge=0&amp;autopause=0&amp;player_id=0&amp;app_id=58479\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"autoplay; fullscreen; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen=\"\" style=\"position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:100%;\" title=\"JAY - KOREAN DATABASES, FREQUENCIES\"></iframe></div>\r\n<script src=\"https://player.vimeo.com/api/player.js\"></script>\r\n<p><a href=\"https://vimeo.com/manage/429332161/general\">Jay Gunkelman on the iSync Brain Database</a><br></p><iframe src=\"https://player.vimeo.com/video/415200171?h=7de4021202&amp;color=13979b&amp;title=0&amp;portrait=0\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"autoplay; fullscreen; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen=\"\"></iframe><br>\r\n\r\n<p>iSync uses independent component analysis (ICA), a statistical method to separate independent sources from superimposed signals. It is the most common method that has been used in EEG data decomposition, and can be used to identify and remove the artifacts\r\n    from raw EEG data. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>The iSync database initially cleans out artifact with the application of high-pass and low-pass filers. This reduces distortions (artifacts) from common physiological sources such as face or eye muscle movements, as well as extrinsic non-physiological\r\n    sources such as electrical devices, power lines, and poor electrode contact. This is the only database currently on the market (2020) that uses the automatic cleaning process (one can choose not to have this process undertaken).</p>\r\n\r\n<p>Features in the iSyncBrain database include time series, power spectrum density (PSD), component scalp map (Topomap), dipole source location (Source location) extracted from ICA are shown for each component.</p>\r\n\r\n<h3><a name=\"_Toc35343007\"></a><a name=\"_Toc33954365\">Independent Components Analysis</a></h3>\r\n\r\n<p>Independent components are spatially and spectrally independent variables in the EEG. Independent component analysis (ICA) is a statistical method to separate independent sources from extracerebellar signals. It is the most common method that has been\r\n    used in EEG data decomposition, and can be used to identify and remove the artifacts from raw EEG data. Features including time series, power spectrum density (PSD), component scalp map (Topomap), and dipole source location are extracted from ICA\r\n    are shown for each component. iSyncBrain computes the EEG and breaks it down into its component parts, represented in components that are ranked by their variability. </p>\r\n<h3><a name=\"_Toc35343008\">Image of an Independent Component\r\nfrom iSyncBrain Quantitative Database</a></h3>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center; \"><a name=\"_Toc35343008\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/isync.png\" alt=\"isync\" width=\"743\" height=\"305\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></a></p>\r\n<p><a name=\"_Toc35343008\"></a></p>\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc35343009\"></a><a name=\"_Toc33954366\">Subcortical Power Findings in iSyncBrain</a></h2>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/isync2.png\" alt=\"Subcortical Power Findings\" width=\"600\" height=\"519\" style=\"font-size: 1rem;\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p><a name=\"_Toc35343008\"></a></p>\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc35343010\"></a><a name=\"_Toc33954367\">Connectivity Findings in the EEG in iSync Brain</a></h2>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><a name=\"_Toc33954367\" style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Connectivity%20in%20isync.png\" alt=\"Connectivity in isync\" width=\"600\" height=\"491\" style=\"text-align: center; \" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></a></p>\r\n<a name=\"_Toc33954367\">\r\n    <p style=\"text-align: center;\"><br></p>\r\n</a>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p><br></p>\r\n<p><a name=\"_Toc35343008\"></a></p>\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc35343011\">ICA Cleaning as seen in iSyncBrain</a></h2>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center; \"><a name=\"_Toc35343011\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/ICA%20Cleaning.png\" alt=\"ICA Cleaning in iSYNC\" width=\"676\" height=\"493\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></a></p>\r\n<p><a name=\"_Toc35343011\"></a></p>\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc35343012\">IV. WinEEG</a></h2>\r\n<p><a name=\"_Toc35343012\"></a><br></p>\r\n<iframe src=\"https://player.vimeo.com/video/410219568?h=0f72277857&amp;color=13979b&amp;title=0&amp;portrait=0\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"autoplay; fullscreen; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen=\"\"></iframe>\r\n<p><a href=\"https://vimeo.com/410219568\">Juri Kropotov, Phd - NF</a> from <a href=\"https://vimeo.com/user102563893\">NeuroField Neurotherapy</a> on <a href=\"https://vimeo.com\">Vimeo</a>.</p>\r\n<p>WinEEG Advanced software allows for the recording, editing and analysis of continuously recorded EEG using a Mitsar amplifier and will also process data recorded in other formats. Raw EEG can be exported to files with different formats such as ASCII,\r\n    Binary, EDF, EDF+, UDF, ASCII, LEXICOR, and NeuroScan v.4.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>EEG spectra, coherence, ERP, ERD and parameters of task performance can be exported to ASCII file automatically for collection of recordings selected by user.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>The EEG (up to 32 channels) is stored on the hard disk and available for subsequent analysis. During recording, the signals are continuously displayed on the screen. The software emulates the “moving” paper mode. EEG can be recorded synchronously with\r\n    visual and acoustic stimuli presentation for ERP/ERD studies. An automatic impedance measurement built into the program helps to control a quality of electrodes setting.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>Recorded EEG can be displayed in different montages: monopolar, bipolar, average reference, weighted average reference and etc. EEG can be filtered by IIR digital filters to change frequency band of recording to and eliminate environmental noise (50 or\r\n    60 Hz). </p>\r\n\r\n<p>WinEEG allows for epoch selection and rejection for the cleaning of artifacts, as well as Advanced artifact correction procedures based on PCA or ICA decomposition of raw EEG and spatial filtering.</p>\r\n<p>The use of ICA is helpful for finding spatially and spectrally independent components in the data.&nbsp;</p>\r\n<p><a href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t5epryuAHHo\">Juri Kropotov on ICA</a></p>\r\n\r\n<p>WinEEG software includes the multichannel spectral analysis, brain mapping and coherence. Power spectra and coherence can be computed for any selected part of recorded EEG. Different parameters of spectra computed for predefined frequency band ranges\r\n    can be displayed as histograms, maps and tables. .</p>\r\n\r\n<p>Build in equivalent dipole localization algorithm help to identify a brain position of source of paroxysmal activity and 3D mapping of data can be performed by LORETA software to which mapped data is transferred automatically.</p>\r\n<p><br></p>\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc35343013\">Image from WinEEG Software</a></h2>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/WinEEG%20Software.png\" alt=\"WinEEG Software\" width=\"1048\" height=\"588\" style=\"font-size: 1rem;\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p><a name=\"_Toc35343008\"></a></p>\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc35343014\">Image from WinEEG Software</a></h2>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center; \"><a name=\"_Toc35343014\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/WinEEG%20Software%202.png\" alt=\"Spectra in WinEEGE \" width=\"650\" height=\"513\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></a></p>\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc35343015\">Image from WinEEG Software</a></h2>\r\n<p><a name=\"_Toc35343015\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/winEEG3.png\" alt=\"WinEEG 3\" width=\"1094\" height=\"616\" style=\"text-align: center; \" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></a></p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><a name=\"_Toc35343015\"><br></a></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p><br></p>\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc35343016\" style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-size: 2.143rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\">Human Brain Institute Database</a><br></h2>\r\n\r\n<p>The HBI database was developed by Juri Kropotov to help researchers record and analyze raw EEG, quantitative EEG and quantitative ERPs studies. The HBI database is built in WinEEG software.</p>\r\n<div style=\"padding:56.25% 0 0 0;position:relative;\"><iframe src=\"https://player.vimeo.com/video/429327602?h=2ac543ead1&amp;badge=0&amp;autopause=0&amp;player_id=0&amp;app_id=58479\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"autoplay; fullscreen; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen=\"\" style=\"position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:100%;\" title=\"JAY - ERP, JURI (with intro and outro)\"></iframe></div>\r\n<script src=\"https://player.vimeo.com/api/player.js\"></script>\r\n<p>The HBI database includes the data from over 3000 EEG recordings collected from more than 1000 healthy subjects from ages 7 to 89 years old. EEGs were recorded at seven different conditions: Eye Opened, Eye Closed tasks and during performing 5 different\r\n    tasks using for ERP analysis such as Visual Continuous Performance Task (VCPT), Auditory Task, Reading Task, Mathematical Task and Mismatch Negativity Task.</p>\r\n\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc35343017\">ERPs</a></h2>\r\n<p>Professor Juri Kropotov on Event Related Potentials</p>\r\n<div style=\"padding:56.25% 0 0 0;position:relative;\"><iframe src=\"https://player.vimeo.com/video/593333759?h=30c241bf2e&amp;badge=0&amp;autopause=0&amp;player_id=0&amp;app_id=58479\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"autoplay; fullscreen; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen=\"\" style=\"position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:100%;\" title=\"Event Related Potentials 101 with Juri Kropotov\"></iframe></div>\r\n<script src=\"https://player.vimeo.com/api/player.js\"></script>\r\n\r\n<p>In Event Related Potentials analysis, brain responses (i.e. evoked potentials) to psychological tasks are decomposed into independent components. The components are associated with distinctive psychological operations. Comparing the amplitude and latency\r\n    of the components with the normative data gives insights into the different stages of information processing in patients.</p>\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc35343018\">Pictures for a Visual Event Related Potentials Test in HBI</a></h2>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/HBI%20Images.png\" alt=\"HBI ERP\" width=\"450\" height=\"357\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\" style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p><a name=\"_Toc35343008\"></a></p>\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc35343019\">Image from HBI Database</a></h2>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center; \"><a name=\"_Toc35343019\">&nbsp;<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/HBI3.png\" alt=\"Image from HBI Database\" width=\"595\" height=\"527\" style=\"text-align: center; \" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></a></p><br><br><br>\r\n<p>The HBI database includes the average spectra, average coherence, average event related potentials (ERPs) and their variance computed for three different referents: linked ears referent, average referent and weighted average referent.\r\n</p>\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc35343020\">Image from HBI Database</a></h2>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center; \"><a name=\"_Toc35343020\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/hbi2.png\" alt=\"Deviations from Normality\" width=\"443\" height=\"496\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"><br></a></p><br>\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc35343021\">BrainDx</a></h2>\r\n<iframe src=\"https://player.vimeo.com/video/410218678?h=3a387513bc&amp;color=13979b&amp;title=0&amp;portrait=0\" width=\"640\" height=\"376\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"autoplay; fullscreen; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen=\"\"></iframe>\r\n<p><br></p>\r\n\r\n<p>BrainDx was formed by internationally recognized Neurophysiological researchers and clinicians via research conducted at the Brain Research Laboratories of New York University School of Medicine. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>BrainDx is a modular system that allows evaluation of brain function on many levels of analysis which can assist in the classification of an individual in terms of psychiatric disorders and neurological conditions. BrainDx is an annual subscription that\r\n    expires one year from purchase and needs to be renewed.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>BrainDx uses 3-D source localization methods, the mathematically most probable underlying sources of the scalp recorded data can be identified, and produces an interpretive report that can be used by clinicians to document neurofunctional status related\r\n    to an individual\'s behavior and performance capacities.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>Part of the report generation process includes comparing the results of a patient\'s brain functional profile to a database of age matched normal individuals. Then, incorporating information from the patient\'s history, statistical comparisons are made\r\n    to the appropriate clinical databases comparing the QEEG profile of the individual patient to those with known disorders, assessing the probability that the patient statistically resembled such patients, and thereby assisting the diagnostic process.\r\n</p>\r\n\r\n<p>For example, if a patient presents with general complaints about memory loss or says that their work is not going well, the BrainDx system can objectively evaluate their brain function relative to age expected normal values, and suggest the statistical\r\n    probability that the EEG profile seen in this patient is consistent with that of a patient with dementia, rather than a patient with clinical depression. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>A non-invasive, 20-30 minute QEEG brain evaluation can generate with statistical accuracy the probability that a patient with particular symptoms matches others in the database with similar symptoms and an objective diagnosis. For example, in the case\r\n    of pediatric concerns, differentiate Learning Disorder (LD) from Normal or Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) from Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). ,etc. In addition BrainDx provides the ability to evaluate brain function, when the patient\r\n    is in two different states; a quantitative assessment of the change in brain function between the two states, for example, on and off a medication.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>The BDx Report generator software produces an interpretive report based upon Neurometric Analysis as well as sLORETA analysis. This tool for quantitative electroencephalography (qEEG ) is a software-based, healthcare technology that purports to facilitate\r\n    the diagnosis and treatment monitoring of a number of psychiatric, developmental, and neurological brain disorders.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>BrainDx accepts raw 19 channel EEG data from most major manufacturers. It has automatic artifact rejection, allows for various montages, and creates maps for all age ranges.&nbsp; The metrics of analysis include Absolute Power, Relative Power, Phase,\r\n    Asymmetry, Coherence and Frequency.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>It also has a unique 3D, rotational volumetric visualization of the brain as mapped from the qEEG interpretation through the high resolution z-score sLORETA algorithm.</p>\r\n\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc35343022\">BrainDx LORETA Imaging</a></h2>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BrainDx%20LORETA%20Imaging.png\" alt=\"BrainDx LORETA IMAGING\" width=\"748\" height=\"573\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\" style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"></p>\r\n<h3><a name=\"_Toc35343023\">An Image of Raw Data in BrainDx</a></h3>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center; \"><a name=\"_Toc35343023\">&nbsp;<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Raw%20Data%20in%20Brain%20Dx.png\" alt=\"Raw Data in BrainDx\" width=\"896\" height=\"682\" style=\"text-align: center; \" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\">&nbsp;</a></p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><a name=\"_Toc35343023\"><br></a></p>\r\n<p></p><br><a name=\"_Toc33954361\" style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.715rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\">Image of Summary Page from BrainDx</a><br>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><a name=\"_Toc33954361\" style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;</a></p><a name=\"_Toc33954361\"></a>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><a name=\"_Toc33954361\"></a><a name=\"_Toc33954361\" style=\"color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Summary%20Page%20Brain%20Dx.png\" alt=\"Summary Page BrainDx\" width=\"851\" height=\"602\" style=\"text-align: center; \" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></a></p><br><br><br><br>\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc35343025\"></a><a name=\"_Toc33954362\">Image from BrainDx</a></h2>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">&nbsp;<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Image%20from%20BrainDx.png\" alt=\"Z-score in Brain Dx\" width=\"1021\" height=\"733\" style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><br></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p></p>',1),(366,83,365,0,20,0,1,1,1589399666,0,'References','<p><p>Adey, W.R., Walter, D.O. and Hendrix, C.E. (1961). Computer\r\ntechniques in correlation and spectral analyses of cerebral slow waves during\r\ndiscriminative behavior.Exp Neurol., 3:501-524 </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Adey, W.R. (1964a). Data acquisition and analysis techniques\r\nin a Brain Research Institute. Ann N Y Acad Sci., 31;115:844-866. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Adey, W.R. (1964b). Biological instrumentation, electrophysiological\r\nrecording and analytic techniques. Physiologist., 72:65-68.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>Duffy, F., Hughes, J. R., Miranda, F., Bernad, P. &amp;\r\nCook, P. (1994). Status of quantitative EEG (QEEG) in clinical practice.\r\nClinical. Electroencephalography, 25 (4), VI - XXII.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>John, E.R. Functional Neuroscience, Vol. II: Neurometrics:\r\nQuantitative Electrophysiological Analyses. E.R. John and R.W. Thatcher,\r\nEditors. L. Erlbaum Assoc., N.J., l977.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>&nbsp;John, E.R. Karmel,\r\nB., Corning, W. Easton, P., Brown, D., Ahn, H., John, M., Harmony, T., Prichep,\r\nL., Toro, A., Gerson, I., Bartlett, F., Thatcher, R., Kaye, H., Valdes, P.,\r\nSchwartz, E. (1977). Neurometrics: Numerical taxonomy identifies different\r\nprofiles of brain functions within groups of behaviorally similar people.\r\nScience, l96, :1393-1410. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>John, E. R., Prichep, L. S. &amp; Easton, P. (1987).\r\nNormative data banks and neurometrics: Basic concepts, methods and results of\r\nnorm construction. In A. Remond (Ed.), Handbook of electroencephalography and\r\nclinical neurophysiology: Vol. III. Computer analysis of the EEG and other\r\nneurophysiological signals (pp. 449- 495). Amsterdam: Elsevier. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>John, E.R., Ahn, H., Prichep, L.S., Trepetin, M., Brown, D.\r\nand Kaye, H. (1980) Developmental equations for the electroencephalogram.\r\nScience, 210: 1255– 1258. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>John, E. R., Prichep, L. S., Fridman, J. &amp; Easton, P.\r\n(1988). Neurometrics: Computer assisted differential diagnosis of brain\r\ndysfunctions. Science, 293, 162-169. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>John, E.R. (1990). Machinery of the Mind: Data, theory, and\r\nspeculations about higher brain function. Birkhauser, Boston.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>Matousek, M. &amp; Petersen, I. (1973a). Automatic\r\nevaluation of background activity by means of agee-dependent EEG quotients. EEG\r\n&amp; Clin. Neurophysiol., 35: 603- 612. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Matousek, M. &amp; Petersen, I. (1973b). Frequency analysis\r\nof the EEG background activity by means of age dependent EEG quotients. In P.\r\nKellaway &amp; I. Petersen (Eds.), Automation of clinical\r\nelectroencephalography (pp. 75-102). New York: Raven Press.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>Thatcher, R. W. &amp; Lubar, J. (2008) History of the\r\nScientific Standards of QEEG Databases. “Introduction to QEEG and\r\nNeurofeedback: Advanced Theory and Applications” Thomas Budzinsky, H.\r\nBudzinski, J. Evans and A. Abarbanel editors, Academic Press, San Diego, CA.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>Thatcher, R.W., Krause, P and Hrybyk, M. (1986).\r\nCorticocortical Association Fibers and EEG Coherence: A Two Compartmental\r\nModel. Electroencephalog. Clinical Neurophysiol., 64: 123 - 143. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Thatcher, R.W. Tomographic EEG/MEG. (1995). Journal of\r\nNeuroimaging, 5, 35-45. Thatcher, R., Wang, B., Toro, C. and Hallett, M.\r\n(1994). Human Neural Network Dynamics Using Multimodal Registration of EEG, PET\r\nand MRI. In: R. Thatcher, M. Hallett, T. Zeffiro, E. John and M. Huerta (Eds.),\r\nFunctional Neuroimaging: Technical Foundations, Academic Press: New York. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Thatcher, R.W., Biver, C. J., and North, D. (2007).\r\nSpatial-temporal current source correlations and cortical connectivity, Clin.\r\nEEG and Neuroscience, 38(1): 35 – 48. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Thatcher, R.W. and Collura, T.F. (2006). Z-Score EEG\r\nBiofeedback. Int. Soc. for Neuronal Regulation, Atlanta, GA, Sept. 2006. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Thatcher, R. W., Biver, C., McAlaster, R &amp; Salazar, A.\r\nM. (1998a). Biophysical linkage between MRI and EEG coherence in traumatic\r\nbrain injury. NeuroImage, 8 (4), 307-326. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Thatcher, R. W., Biver, C., Camacho, M., McAlaster, R. &amp;\r\nSalazar, A. M. (1998b). Biophysical linkage between MRI and EEG amplitude in\r\ntraumatic brain injury. NeuroImage, 7, 352-367. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Thatcher, R.W., North, D., and Biver, C. (2005c). EEG and\r\nIntelligence: Univariate and Multivariate Comparisons Between EEG Coherence,\r\nEEG Phase Delay and Power. Clinical Neurophysiology, 116(9):2129-2141. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Thatcher, R.W. and John, E.R. (1977). Functional\r\nNeuroscience, Vol. 1: Foundations of Cognitive Processes, E.R. John and R.W. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Thatcher, Editors. L. Erlbaum Assoc., N.J. Thompson, J.,\r\nSebastianelli, W., Slobounov, S. (2005). EEG and postural correlates of mild\r\ntraumatic brain injury in athletes. Neuroscience Letters, 4 377(3), 158-163.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>&nbsp;Thatcher, R.W.,\r\nCantor, D.S., McAlaster, R., Geisler, F. and Krause, P. Comprehensive\r\npredictions of outcome in closed head injury: The development of prognostic\r\nequations. (1991). Annals New York Academy of Sciences, 620: 82-104. 36 </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Thatcher, R.W., Walker, R.A., Gerson, I. and Geisler, F.\r\n(1989). EEG discriminant analyses of mild head trauma. EEG and Clin.\r\nNeurophysiol., 73: 93-106. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Thatcher, R.W., North, D., Curtin, R., Walker, R.A., Biver,\r\nC., J.F. Gomez M., and Salazar, A. (2001a). An EEG Severity Index of Traumatic\r\nBrain Injury, J. Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 13(1): 77-87 </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Thatcher, R.W., Camacho, M., Salazar, A., Linden, C., Biver,\r\nC. and Clarke, L. (1997). Quantitative MRI of the gray-white matter\r\ndistribution in traumatic brain injury. J. Neurotrauma, 14: 1-14. . </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Thatcher R.W., Biver, C.L., Gomez-Molina J.F., North, D.,\r\nCurtin, R. and Walker, R.W., and Salazar, A. (2001b). Estimation of the EEG\r\nPower Spectrum by MRI T2 Relaxation Time in Traumatic Brain Injury. Clinical\r\nNeurophysiology, 112: 1729-1745. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Thatcher, R.W., North, D., and Biver, C. (2007b).\r\nSelf-organized criticality and the development of EEG phase reset. Human Brain\r\nMapping (In press, 2007).</p>\r\n\r\n<p>Ahn, H., Prichep, L. S., John, E. R., Baird, H., Trepetin,\r\nM. &amp; Kaye, H. (1980). Developmental equations reflect brain dysfunctions.\r\nScience, 210, 1259-1261. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Chicurel, M. (2000). Databasing the Brain. Nature, 406,\r\n822-825. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Donchin, E. (1987). The P300 as a metric for mental\r\nworkload. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 39 (Suppl.),\r\n338-343. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Duffy, F. H., Burchfiel, J. L., &amp; Lombroso, C. T.\r\n(1979). Brain electrical activity mapping (BEAM): A method for extending the\r\nclinical utility of EEG and evoked potential data. Annals of Neurology, 5 (4),\r\n309-321. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Duffy, F. H., Hughes, J. R, Miranda, F., Bernad, P., &amp;\r\nCook, P. (1994). Status of quantitative EEG (QEEG) in clinical practice.\r\nClinical Electroencephalography, 25 (4),VI-XXII. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Fein, G., Raz, J., Brown F. F., &amp; Merrin, E. L. (1988).\r\nCommon reference coherence data are confounded by power and phase effects.\r\nElectroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 69 (6), 581-584. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Gunkelman, J. 2000. Hjorth referencing in QEEG, Journal of\r\nNeurotherapy, 4 (1), 57-62. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Hammond, D.C. &amp; Gunkelman, J. 2001. The art of\r\nartifacting. Salt Lake City, Utah: Society for Neuronal Regulation (see <a href=\"http://www.snr-jnt.org\">www.snr-jnt.org</a>). </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Hudspeth, W. 2002. Prototype for database-free qEEG. (2002,\r\nSeptember). Presentation at the annual meeting of the Society for Neuronal\r\nRegulation, Scottsdale, AZ.&nbsp; </p>\r\n\r\n<p>John, E. R., Karmel, B. Z., Corning, W. C., Easton, P.,\r\nBrown, D., Ahn, H., et al. 1977. Neurometrics: numerical taxonomy identifies\r\ndifferent profiles of brain functions within groups of behaviorally similar\r\npeople. Science, 196, 1393- 1410. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>John, E. R., Prichep, L., Ahn, H., Easton, P., Fridman, J.,\r\n&amp; Kaye, H. (1983). Neurometric evaluation of cognitive dysfunctions and\r\nneurological disorders in children. Progress in Neurobiology, 21 (4), 239- 290.\r\n</p>\r\n\r\n<p>John, E. R., Prichep, L. S., &amp; Easton, P. (1987).\r\nNormative data banks and Neurometrics. Basic concepts, methods, results of norm\r\nconstruction. In A. S. Gevins &amp; A. Remond (Eds.), Methods of analysis of\r\nbrain electrical and magnetic signals (pp. 449-495). Amsterdam: Elsevier. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Johnstone, J. (2002). Bispectral analysis of the EEG: A\r\nbrief technical note. Journal of Neurotherapy, 6 (3), 77-81. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Lorensen, T. &amp; Dickson, P. (2002) Quantitative EEG\r\nnormative databases: A comparative investigation [Abstract]. Journal of\r\nNeurotherapy 6 (1), 89-90. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Misulis, K. E. &amp; Fakhoury, T. (2001). Spehlmann’s evoked\r\npotential primer (3rd ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier (Butterworth-Heinemann). </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Niedermeyer, E. &amp; Lopes Da Silva, F. (Eds.). (1999).\r\nElectroencephalography: Basic principles, clinical applications, and related fi\r\nelds (4th ed.). Baltimore: Lippincott, Williams &amp; Wilkins. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Pfurtscheller, G., Maresch, H., &amp; Schuy, S. (1985). ERD\r\n(event-related desynchronization) mapping: A new procedure for functional brain\r\ndiagnosis. Biomed Tech (Berl), 30 (1-2), 2-6. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Rennie C. J., Wright, J. J., &amp; Robinson P. A. (2000).\r\nMechanisms of cortical electrical activation and emergence of gamma rhythm.\r\nJournal of Theoretical Biology 205(1),17-35. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Scherg, M., Ille, N., Bornfleth, H., &amp; Berg, P.(2002).\r\nAdvanced tools for digital EEG review: Virtual source montages, whole-head\r\nmapping, correlation, and phase analysis. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology,\r\n19 (2), 91-112. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Sigl J. C. &amp; Chamoun N. C. (1994). An introduction to\r\nbispectral analysis for the EEG. Journal of Clinical Monitoring, 10, 392-404. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Sterman, M. B. &amp; Kaiser, D. (2001). Comodulation: A new\r\nqEEG analysis metric for assessment of structural and functional disorders of\r\nthe central nervous system. Journal of Neurotherapy, 4 (3), 73-83. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Suffin, S. C. &amp; Emory, W. H. (1995). Neurometric\r\nsubgroups in attentional and affective disorders and their association with\r\npharmacotherapeutic outcome. Clinical Electroencephalography, 26, 76-83. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Thatcher, R. W. (1998). EEG normative databases and EEG biofeedback.\r\nJournal of Neurotherapy, 2 (4), 8–39. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Tyner, F. &amp; Knott, J.(1983). Fundamentals of EEG\r\ntechnology (Vol. 1). New York: Raven Press.</p><br></p>',1),(367,84,0,368,20,0,1,1,1589487816,1626108971,'Origins of EEG','<p></p>\r\n<h3><i style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">“Ever since electrical activity has been recorded in the brain without evidence of an inducing external agent, it has been referred to as “spontaneous” (Buszaki, p. 12). “Complex systems, such as the brain, live by the rules of non-linear dynamics, better known as chaos theory” Buszaki, (p. 13).</i></h3>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p><i><br></i></p>\r\n<p>Theories of how EEG arises and propagates itself are still evolving. The EEG at the surface of the cortex reflects the summated activity of ensembles of cells in the form of extracellular current flow. This summated activity is due apparently to synchronously\r\n    activated postsynaptic potentials from vertically oriented pyramidal cells. Thus, the production of Local Field Potentials (LFPs) is what is picked up by the electroencephalograh (i.e. amplifier), and LFPs are observed only as radially-oriented (i.e.\r\n    right-angle) dendrites excitatory action potentials summate in the cortical gyri and sulci. That means that the deeper pyramidal neurons do not affect the EEG to as large an extent (although they still affect the data). The further the distance from\r\n    the scalp, the less the voltage of the action potentials.</p>\r\n<p>Here is a short video of action potentials:&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W2hHt_PXe5o\">Action Potentials</a></p>\r\n<p><a name=\"_Toc29328756\" style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.715rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\">Action potential occurring along an axon</a></p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;</span><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Action%20Potentials.png\" alt=\"Action potentials\" width=\"533\" height=\"347\" style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p><span>What we see in the EEG is limited to measuring what is occurring at the cortical excitatory pyramidal neurons, which make up about 80% of the human cortex (or 80 billion of the 100 billion). The high density clustering these excitatory pyramidal neurons’ synapses create high density network nodes, or hubs in the brain, which serve as metaphorical substations for the relay of energy across functional networks in the brain (Hagmann et al., 2008; He et al., 2008). The actions of inhibitory neurons is not visible in the EEG, however, inhibitory neurons serve to hyperpolarize action potentials of pyramidal neurons into in-phase and anti-phase dynamics. And balancing of opposing forces, such as excitation and inhibition, often gives rise to rhythmic behavior. The mean time difference between&nbsp; the discharges of any two pairs of cells is zero; that is, interneurons discharge synchronously at approximately the same time. And neurons in&nbsp;&nbsp;the inhibitory network will be inhibited at the same time and fire simultaneously after inhibition wears off. Discharge and silence will alternate in all parts of the network synchronously (Buszaki, p. 75). On average, all neurons will fire at zero lag time and will be silenced at the same time (p. 76). Oscillator networks made from homogenous inhibitory neurons can have a large deteriorating effect on subsequent synchronous discharge of the&nbsp;<a name=\"_Hlk16500290\">neurons. This may explain why gamma-frequency oscillations are typically short-lasting, transient events (Buszaki, p. 76)</a></span></p>\r\n<p>GABAergic inhibitory neurons can aid to synchronize neurons in a coordinated manner (into cross-frequency phase shift and phase lock) by shifting the membrane potentials of pyramidal neurons.</p><br>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<h3><a name=\"_Toc29328757\">Pyramidal Neurons</a></h3>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Pyramidal%20Neurons.png\" alt=\"Pyramidal Neurons\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" style=\"font-size: 1rem;\" class=\"atto_image_button_text-bottom\"></p>\r\n<p>According to Duffy (1989), excitatory neurotransmitters evoke an electrical change in the excitatory postsynaptic membrane potentials (EPSP), depolarizing the post synaptic membrane and leading eventually to an action potential, while inhibitory neurotransmitters\r\n    result in increased negative charge inside the cell membrane known as the inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) that hyperpolarizes the cell membrane and inhibits depolarization. Excitatory post synaptic potentials move positive ions (sodium, calcium\r\n    and potassium) down axons and inhibitory post synaptic potentials move negative ions (chlorine) down axons. When recording an EEG, 50% of the data arriving at the site of the electrode is from neurons directly underneath it, and 95% of the data comes\r\n    from within 6 centimeters distance (that’s a circle with a diameter of 2&nbsp;<sup>1/3</sup>&nbsp;inches—big).</p>\r\n<p>Here is a video of a neuron firing:&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WhowH0kb7n0&amp;t=44s\">Synaptic Transmission</a></p>\r\n<p>There are two types of connections between synapses: <b>electrical and chemical</b> synapses. Electrical synapses produce very short and high-speed communication (200 nsec to a few msec), which are too short to be measured at the scalp surface, due to\r\n    filtering properties of the skull. However, chemical synapses, which are responsible for the swap of neurotransmitters (small molecules) and neuromodulators (large molecules), produce short duration electrical potentials of 100msec to seconds, which\r\n    are readable via EEG (1 to 300Hz with intra-cerebral electrodes and 1 – 50Hz with scalp electrodes) (Buzsaki, 2006).&nbsp;&nbsp;</p><p>There are “fast synapses” and “slow synapses”. Fast synapses encompass 90% of excitatory synapses, which are modulated with\r\n    the neurotransmitter glutamate, and 90% of inhibitory synapses, which are modulated by the neurotransmitter GABA. Slow synapses encompass the other 20% are long duration synaptic potentials that last for 100 msec to 1 sec and are modulated by dopamine,\r\n    acetycholine, serotonin, norepinephrine and histamine (these molecules are within a sub-class of neurotransmitters, called neuromodulators, due to the lack of re-uptake mechanism) (Thatcher, 2012). Fast synapses&nbsp; oscillate at 0 – 80msec and slow\r\n    synapses oscillate at 100 msec – 1 second), thus the frequencies of 0-80 msec (12.5+ Hz) are ruled by the gaba/glutamate allostasis and the frequencies of 10Hz (100 msec to 1 sec) and under are ruled by the slow synaptic neuromodulators. The frequencies\r\n    of 10 – 12.5Hz are a blend of fast and slow synapses. If you brain is not producing noephinephrine, your alpha is likely too slow and if you have too much GABA, your alpha is likely too fast.</p><p><br></p>\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc29328758\">Slow Cortical Potentials and Infraslow Frequencies</a></h2><br>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p><p>Infraslow Frequencies (ISF) and Slow Cortical Potentials\r\n(SCP) are negative or positive polarizations of the EEG. ISFs are 0.01Hz to\r\n0.1Hz. &nbsp;Slow cortical potentials are\r\n0.1Hz to 1Hz.Both ISFs and SCPs reflect the depolarization of large cortical\r\ncell assemblies (seen in the apical dendrites of large groups of pyramidal\r\nneurons) reducing their excitation threshold. Sheets of cortical neurons\r\ndepolarize in the creation of ISF/SCPs, creating electro-negative swings.\r\nThey are described as a phasic tuning mechanism related to activities in the\r\nbrain stem reticular process, the thalamus and the basal ganglia.<span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;Slow cortical\r\n    potentials and infraslow frequencies bind networks (this is the binding frequency of consciousness, not gamma—gamma is the by-product of being bound).</span></p><p><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"><p>ISF/SCPs bind resting state networks (RSN) (also called intrinsic\r\nconnectivity networks). They have to do with hemodynamics, the burning of blood\r\nglucose (this is where blood sugar is metabolized), and resting state potential\r\ndynamics.&nbsp;<em><b>Glucose</b></em>&nbsp;comes from the Greek word for \"sweet.\" When you metabolize blood sugar (glucose), you create the by-product of bi-carbonate ions (a form of carbon dioxide, also known as HCO3) in the blood, which generates an electro-negative charge. Your blood brings bicarbonate to your lungs, and then it is exhaled as carbon dioxide. Your kidneys also help regulate bicarbonate. Bicarbonate is excreted and reabsorbed by your kidneys. This regulates your body\'s pH, or acid balance. Bicarbonate also works with sodium, potassium, and chloride, also called electrolytes. These are usually measured at the same time as bicarbonate.&nbsp;</p><p>Glial cells generate direct current and slow cortical potentials. In the human brain, these spontaneous\r\nfluctuations are salient in blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) signals,\r\nreflecting underlying resting state network (RSN) dynamics. You have between 10-100 glia for every neuron.&nbsp;Glia have many roles, as will be covered later in this chapter. But, suffice it to say, glia are foremost know in acting like scaffolding for each neuron. There are shared hemodynamic and anatomical\r\nconnections in resting state networks (<a href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6608153/#B30\" rid=\"B30\" role=\"button\" aria-expanded=\"false\" aria-haspopup=\"true\">Leistner et al.,\r\n2007</a>,&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6608153/#B31\" rid=\"B31\" role=\"button\" aria-expanded=\"false\" aria-haspopup=\"true\">2010</a>;&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6608153/#B26\" rid=\"B26\" role=\"button\" aria-expanded=\"false\" aria-haspopup=\"true\">Khader et al.,\r\n2008</a>, <a href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6608153/#B21\">He et al., 2008</a>;&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6608153/#B22\" rid=\"B22\" role=\"button\" aria-expanded=\"false\" aria-haspopup=\"true\">Helps et al.,\r\n2010</a>;&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6608153/#B12\" rid=\"B12\" role=\"button\" aria-expanded=\"false\" aria-haspopup=\"true\">Broyd et al.,\r\n2011</a>). In other words, SCPs and ISFs are a direct\r\nelectrophysiological correlate of BOLD signals, seen in resting state networks. </p><p>Negative shifts represent\r\nincreased probability of firing while positive shifts represent decreased\r\nprobability or inhibition. Negative shifts are described as related to the\r\nutilization of resources for attention, memory, and other related cognitive\r\nmechanisms. To ground this in example: it has been hypothesized that in\r\nautism spectrum cases, the threshold of depolarization is too high and in ADHD\r\ncases, the threshold of depolarization is too low. In ISF/SCP neurofeedback training,\r\nADHD children are taught to increase the negativity of the SCP, while autistic\r\nand seizure cases are taught to decrease the negativity of the SCP. Additionally,\r\nin patients with seizure conditions, large negative potential shifts have been\r\nobserved moments before a seizure. </p></span></p></p><br>\r\n<h3>Slow Cortical Potentials</h3>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center; \"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/SCP.png\" alt=\"SCP\" width=\"301\" height=\"244\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc29328759\">Delta (1-4 Hz)</a></h2>\r\n<p>Delta is 1 - 4 Hz, or oscillations per second. Delta is generated by the hypothalamus (a region of the forebrain below the thalamus which coordinates both the autonomic nervous system and the activity of the pituitary, controlling body temperature, thirst, hunger, and other homeostatic systems, and involved in sleep and emotional activity). It is fundamental to the mesolimbic dopamine system in the brain). Delta is also generated in dipoles within sheets of cortical tissues.&nbsp;</p><p>Delta arises from unmyelinated white matter in early life, and in adult states of deep dreamless sleep, when pacemakers in thalamic and septo-hippocampal, hypothalamic, and brainstem locations create\r\n    the slow pulsing carrier wave rhythms of the EEG by activating large groups of synchronous neurons at the same time. Early in life delta is created by the fundamental neuronal structures of the reptilian system and delta appears during the initial\r\n    migration of neurons across the lobe of the brain, as they form the basic networks of the brain that make up the fundamental architecture from which everything else springs forth.&nbsp;</p><p>When the brain is damaged, delta can be generated in healing tissues and may show up focally. This is an image of focal (or localized) delta activity.</p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Focal%20Delta.png\" alt=\"Focal Delta\" width=\"930\" height=\"796\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></p><p>Delta\r\nrhythm in the awake state in adult EEG is an abnormal finding and is typically associated with pathology. A record showing diffuse delta and theta activity (when drowsiness is ruled out) will typically indicate developmental issues, issues of dementia, or severe developmental trauma. Artifacts with very slow\r\npotentials, such as rolling eye movement (see page 3), pulse, sweat, and respiration may produce\r\nsimilar frequencies &lt;4 Hz, in EEG recordings.</p><p>This image is the QEEG of the abnormal focal delta findings at the left temporal lobe.</p>\r\n<p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Focal%20Delta%202.png\" alt=\"Focal Delta\" width=\"711\" height=\"447\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p>\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc29328760\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc29328760\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc29328760\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc29328760\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc29328760\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc29328760\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc29328760\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc29328760\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc29328760\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc29328760\"><br></a></h2><h2><br></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc29328760\">Theta (4-8 Hz)</a></h2>\r\n<p>Theta rhythm is a normal finding during drowsiness in the adult EEG. Theta, may be seen at\r\nthe onset of sleep as the alpha rhythm slows with drowsiness. The state of mind typically dominated by theta is that of dayream, hypnogogia, or trance. If theta\r\nfrequencies are present in an alert, adult’s EEG they are usually considered to be an abnormal\r\nfinding.</p><p>Since all thalamo-cortical activity is considered alpha, much theta activity is truly slowed alpha activity (which is recognizable by its sinusoidal shape). The thalamus can gate as slow as 2Hz and as fast as 14 hz. However, theta is limbically generated\r\n    in the septo-hippocampal circuit, as well as generated by the nucleus accumbens in the forebrain.&nbsp;</p><p>Limbically generated theta is thought of as frontal midline theta, since the limbic projections are spatially limited, cortically, at the frontal and\r\n    central midline. However, if it is longer than one second it is not frontal midline theta, but more the theta that is attention deficit disorder theta.&nbsp; Similar to delta, theta can be generated cortically when brain tissues are injured--delta typifies a more sever head injury (e.g. Traumatic Brain Injury), and theta will represent a lesser injury (e.g. concussion).</p>\r\n<p>The image below is of a woman who is drowsy, with eyes open, showing a combination of theta and alpha frequencies.&nbsp;</p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Slow%20Alpha.png\" alt=\"Slow Alpha\" width=\"1279\" height=\"718\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></p>\r\n<h3></h3><h3><br></h3><h3><br></h3><h3><br></h3><h3><br></h3><h3><br></h3><h3><br></h3><h3><br></h3><h3><br></h3><h3><br></h3><p><br></p><h3>Nucleus Accumbens</h3><br><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Nucleus%20Accumbens.jpg\" alt=\"Nucleus Accumbens\" width=\"400\" height=\"300\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\">\r\n<p>The nucleus accumbens is a part of the reward network (it is considered a monopole because all of the dipoles in it add to zero—it is tightly hooked to the rostral anterior cingulate). The nucleus accumbens provides acetycholine to the temporal lobes\r\n    via the diagonal band of broca, which creates a feedback loop involving the amygdala and the hippocampus complex. The parahippocampal cortex reflects the temporal lobe\'s monopoles of the hippocampus and amygdala. This feedback loop creates the theta\r\n    rhythm ,which is occurring in the septo-hippocampal circuit. &nbsp;Acetylcholine&nbsp;causes muscles to contract, activates pain responses and regulates endocrine and REM sleep functions.&nbsp;<span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">In ADD/ADHD the brain is dopamine deficient.</span></p>\r\n<p><i>Interesting fact:&nbsp;</i><i>The venom of a black widow spider acts by causing the release of acetylcholine. When a person is bitten by a black widow, their acetylcholine levels rise dramatically, leading to severe muscle contractions, spasms, paralysis, and even death.</i></p><p><span style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.286rem;\"><br></span></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><span style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.286rem;\">The Movement of Glutamate and Dopamine through the Brain</span><br></p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Glutamate%20and%20Dopamine.png\" alt=\"Glutamate and Dopamine\" width=\"395\" height=\"366\"></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><br></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc29328761\"><h2><br></h2><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc29328761\">Alpha</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p>Alpha is a 8-12Hz rhythm that is seen most readily in eyes closed EEG recordings.&nbsp;Alpha is a sinusoidal-like rhythm that tends to change in amplitude during an EEG recording.&nbsp;The average voltage of the normal adult alpha rhythm is 50 microvolts. Normal individuals may\r\nhave alpha voltages as high as 100 microvolts or as low as 20 microvolts. In some cases, the\r\nalpha rhythm is seen only for a second after eye closure. Although alpha is usually seen in the\r\noccipital regions, it may appear in the posterior temporal and parasagittal electrodes as well. The\r\nalpha rhythm is sometimes slightly higher voltage over the right hemisphere.&nbsp;</p><p>Alpha rhythm attenuates, or diminishes, with eye opening and/or during mental activity/such as\r\nconcentrating to answer questions. In most cases, the alpha rhythm attenuates whenever the eyes\r\nare open (reactive alpha). Less commonly, the alpha rhythm attenuates, or blocks, for only a\r\nsecond or two with eye opening, returning almost immediately even if the individual\'s eyes\r\nremain open (persistent alpha). Both types of alpha reactivity are considered normal.<br></p><p>Alpha is a frequency generated by the gating of the thalamus (it is received at the cortex and is thus, “thalamo-cortical”). It has been thought that the reticular nucleus of the thalamus is the specific alpha generator. When the EEG goes electro-positive, the thalamus closes.&nbsp; As the idling rhythm of the brain, alpha orchestrates (regulates)\r\n    cortical function. Alpha often acts as a carrier wave that allows the content of gamma to be processed. The wave morphology of alpha is usually typified by a sinusoidal wave, although it may be more sharp than rounded in a few people, especially children\r\n    and young adults.&nbsp; Current belief (Niedermeyer, 1999a; Steriade, Gloor, Llinas, Lopes da Silva, &amp; Musulam, 1990) is that there are cortico-cortico and thalamo-cortical generators of alpha which interact with one another, although there is\r\n    no validation of a synchronizing mechanism at a cortical level.&nbsp;</p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/alpha%20activity.jpg\" alt=\"ALpha Activity\" width=\"834\" height=\"983\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></p><h2><a name=\"_Toc29328762\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc29328762\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc29328762\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc29328762\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc29328762\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc29328762\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc29328762\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc29328762\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc29328762\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc29328762\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc29328762\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc29328762\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc29328762\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc29328762\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc29328762\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc29328762\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc29328762\"><br></a></h2><h2><a name=\"_Toc29328762\"></a><h2><a name=\"_Toc29328762\"></a><a name=\"_Toc29328762\">Sensory Motor Rhythm - SMR (12-15 Hz)&nbsp;</a></h2></h2><h5>SMR is also called Beta 1, and is a rhythm that has many functions. It is an awake and focused frequency, faster than alpha, but slower than the faster beta frequencies. This rhythm has been found to have anti-epileptic properties and is a frequency often in relative deficit to theta (hence it is a good counterbalance to excessive theta in neurofeedback as well as neurostimulation). Futhermore, this is the frequency range in which sleep spindles occur (a stabilizing mechanism of sleep).&nbsp;</h5><h2><a name=\"_Toc29328762\">Beta (12-30 Hz)</a></h2><p><a name=\"_Toc29328762\">Beta is a cortico-cortical frequency, generated by the six layers of pyramidal neurons that create the cortex of the brain. Beta is responsible for local communication within groups of neurons. Beta arrives in many states and conditions, from the point of birth onward, however its predominant function is executive functioning and processing of information for decision making. It is thought to be the brain wave that is responsible for higher level thinking.<br></a></p>\r\n\r\n<p>The term \"beta rhythm\" was first used to describe frequencies faster than alpha rhythm by Hans\r\nBerger in 1930. Beta rhythm is usually low voltage (less than 30 microvolts) in adults. Often,\r\nduring the awake EEG, beta is present in the anterior head area, but may be obscured by muscle\r\nartifact (EMG) and eye movement potentials from the frontal electrodes (see illustration). Beta\r\nrhythm is a normal finding in the adult awake EEG and can sometimes be better seen when the\r\npatient\'s eyes are open. Beta rhythm is sometimes intermixed with other EEG rhythms of higher\r\nvoltage, such as the alpha rhythm, giving the alpha rhythm a notched or spiky appearance. Beta\r\nis enhanced by drowsiness and some medications, especially gabaergic drugs.</p><p>The image below is of normal, awake beta activity in an adult\'s EEG.</p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/beta%20%281%29.png\" alt=\"beta\" width=\"1000\" height=\"957\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></p><h2><a name=\"_Toc29328763\">Gamma</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p>Gamma, which is 40+ Hz, is an emergent property in the EEG and does not have a generator, like the other frequencies. Gamma can be generated everywhere in the brain. Gamma is a resonant property of networks being bound, it arrives like a rainbow arrives\r\n    via the combination of sun and water vapor. Gamma shows after receiving a stimulus and is thought to be the “aha!” or the moment of \"Eureka!\" of EEG. The below image is of a persistent frontal gamma in a spiritual guru in a meditative state.&nbsp;</p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Gamma.jpg\" alt=\"Frontal Gamma\" width=\"718\" height=\"984\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br>\r\n<p></p><br>\r\n<p></p><br><br>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p><br></p>\r\n<p></p>\r\n<p></p>',1);
INSERT INTO `mdl_lesson_pages` VALUES (368,84,367,370,20,0,1,1,1589492164,1594470761,'EEG101: The ABCs','<p></p><p><span style=\"color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem; font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;, sans-serif;\">The first\r\nofficial classification of brainwave bandwidths was introduced by the&nbsp;</span>International Federation of\r\nSocieties for Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology in 1974. It is as\r\nfollows: delta (0.5 – 4 Hz), theta (4-8 Hz), alpha (8-12<span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">Hz), beta (12-30 Hz), and gamma\r\n(&gt;30Hz). Hertz (Hz) is the measure of the speed of&nbsp;</span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">brainwaves, noting numerically the\r\nfrequency in cycles per second. It has been&nbsp;</span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">hypothesized that the subconscious\r\nand sleep states (dominated by theta and delta) are&nbsp;</span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">linked to the conscious states\r\n(13+ Hz) through the bridge of alpha brain waves (Wise,&nbsp;</span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">2002, p. 53).</span></p><h3><br></h3><p></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\">&nbsp;<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Brainwaves.png\" alt=\"Brainwaves\" width=\"876\" height=\"581\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\" style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"></p><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"><br></span><p></p><p>Brainwaves\r\nare characterized by their speed (frequency), size (amplitude) and shape\r\n(morphology). Frequency is the power or speed of the electrical emissions,\r\nmeasured in hertz (Hz). Amplitude is the power of the electricity, measured in microvolts. Pure\r\nmicrovolts is called magnitude and microvolts squared is called amplitude. Here\r\nare some other and important definitions. In EEG analysis and brain region\r\nanalysis, it is helpful to think of the frequency as the adjective (i.e. theta\r\n= foggy, groggy, fuzzy, trance-like, day-dreamy, “not all here,”) and the\r\nregion that is affected as the noun.</p><h2><a name=\"_Toc29328765\">Important Definitions</a></h2><p><a name=\"_Toc29328765\"><b>Action Potentials -&nbsp;</b>The exchange of potassium (K+), Chloride (Cl-), Calcium (Ca<sup>2</sup>+) and Sodium (Na+) along the dendrite of a neuron, which produces a small battery that maintains a voltage of -60 millivolts.<br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc29328765\"></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc29328765\"><b>Amplitude </b>- the\r\nheight or voltage of the waveform. Measured in uV and may be affected by skull\r\nthickness.</a></p><p></p><p><a name=\"_Toc29328765\"><b>Asymmetry -&nbsp;</b>The absence or violation of balance between two hemispheres or quadrants.</a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc29328765\"><b>Bilateral -</b>&nbsp;Occurring on both sides of the EEG; occurring over both hemispheres<br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc29328765\"><b>Connectome -&nbsp;</b>The complete description of the structural connectivity (the physical wiring) of an organism’s nervous system.</a></p><p></p><a name=\"_Toc29328765\">\r\n\r\n</a><p><a name=\"_Toc29328765\"><b>Coherence</b>- measures wave form similarity\r\nor correlation in a given band between two sites (phase synchrony). Coherence measures</a><a name=\"_Toc29328765\" style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem;\"></a></p><p style=\"display: inline !important;\">the stability of phase relationship between any two areas of the brain. Two areas are said to be coherent if they have constant respective relative phase. Coherence in excess is hypercoherence; coherence in deficiency is hypocoherence.</p><p></p><p><a name=\"_Toc29328765\"></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc29328765\"><b>Comodulation</b> – magnitude\r\nsynchrony. The correlation of averaged amplitude between two sites.</a></p><a name=\"_Toc29328765\">\r\n\r\n<p><b>Complex – </b>any\r\nmorphology that includes more than one shape, such as ‘spike and wave.’</p>\r\n\r\n<p><b>Derivation –</b> The\r\npair of inputs in any channel, such as F3-F7 in a transverse montage</p>\r\n\r\n<p><b>Differential\r\namplifier –</b> Any amplifier that subtracts (differentiates) events at input 2\r\nfrom input 1.</p><p></p><p><b>Diffuse -</b>&nbsp;Widespread, occurring over a large area of one or both hemispheres</p><p><b>Dominant Frequency</b>&nbsp;(Aka Background Rhythm) - The frequency of EEG activity that occupies the greater part of the recording</p><p></p>\r\n\r\n<p><b>Event related\r\npotentials</b> – a measured EEG response to any internal or external event; a\r\ndirect result of a given cognitive, sensory or motor event. It is measured in\r\ntime (ms) and polarity (positive or negative). The resulting wave pattern and\r\nflow within the brain advises the efficiency of the response.</p>\r\n\r\n<p><b>Fast Fourier\r\nTransform</b> – an algorithm to transform the space domain of the analog EEG\r\nwave to the time domain, yielding spectral displays, making it easier to view\r\nthe average frequency curve of the EEG record.</p><p></p><p><b>Focal -</b>&nbsp;In a clearly delineated area of the brain as in a focal temporal spike or focal slowing</p><p></p><p></p><p><b>Frequency -</b>&nbsp;Cycles per second. The standard unit of frequency is “Hertz,” which is abbreviated as Hz. 4 Hz is equal to four cycles per second.&nbsp;</p><p><b>Frequency Band -&nbsp;</b>A range of wave frequencies, typically grouped as follows: delta (0-4 Hz), theta (4-8 Hz), alpha (8-12 Hz), low beta (12-15 Hz), mid beta (15-25Hz), high beta (25-40Hz), gamma (40+ Hz).</p><p></p>\r\n\r\n<p><b>Frequency Response</b>\r\n– the quantitative measure of the spectrum of the EEG output of a response to\r\nan event that is represented as a frequency and energy chart. Commonly used\r\nwith ERPs</p>\r\n\r\n<p><b>Gain –</b> the\r\namplifier setting that show amplification of the raw EEG or the strength of the\r\nsignal, which determines current source. Sensitivity is relevant to montage due\r\nto the distance and angle the 2 inputs have in each channel. Since the skull is\r\nnot perfectly round and it contains different densities, this must also be\r\ntaken into account. Gain and sensitivity are reciprocal.</p>\r\n\r\n<p><b>Gaussian Distribution</b>\r\n– The inverted bell-shaped curve that delineates standard deviations from the\r\nmean and shows normal distribution across a sample set.</p></a><p><a name=\"_Toc29328765\"></a><a name=\"_Toc29328765\"></a></p><p></p><p><a name=\"_Toc29328765\"><b>Harmonic -</b>&nbsp;A wave or frequency that is an integral multiple of a given frequency.</a></p><p></p><p><a name=\"_Toc29328765\"><b>Homologous -</b>&nbsp;Two areas at the same region of the brain, mirrored, sharing common function (i.e. C# is the homologue to C4)</a></p><p></p><p></p><p><a name=\"_Toc29328765\"></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc29328765\"><b>Hypercoherence</b>&nbsp;– when two waveforms are modulated to too high a degree. This is often correlated with inflexibility in behavioral manifestation based upon the functionality of the two sites being measured.</a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc29328765\"><b>Hypocoherence</b>&nbsp;– when two waveforms are too dissimilar. The assumption is that there is disorganization in the functionality between the two sites.</a></p><p></p>\r\n\r\n<p><b>Log transform</b> – a\r\nstatistical tool used to make data sets less skewed and easier to interpret</p>\r\n\r\n<p><b>Joint Time Frequency\r\nAnalysis</b> – (JTFA) a transform tool to visualize a signal in the time domain\r\nby plotting the frequency domain as a function of time. </p><p><b>Lateralized -</b>&nbsp;Occurring only over one hemisphere<br></p>\r\n\r\n<p><b>Low resolution\r\nelectromagnetic tomographic analysis (LORETA)</b> – the use of inverse solution\r\nmathematics to solve the question of what electrical activity occurs at certain\r\nsubcortical regions based upon electromagnetic activity in the cortical areas\r\nutilizing the information.</p>\r\n\r\n<p><b>Magnitude</b> – the\r\naverage of amplitude over time (square root of power). May be affected by skull\r\nthickness.</p>\r\n\r\n<p><b>Mean frequency</b> –\r\nthe frequency presenting with the most energy within a given spectrum. Can be\r\noverall or within bands. The overall mean frequency is often noted in the 8-12\r\nHz range. When within the alpha band, it is termed the dominant frequency.</p><p><a name=\"_Toc29328765\"></a></p><p></p><p><a name=\"_Toc29328765\"><b>Multifocal -</b>&nbsp;Having several independent foci as in multifocal paroxysmal spike discharges</a></p><p></p>\r\n\r\n<p><b>Phase </b>– The point\r\nat which the waveform changes polarity and then reverses again. Polarity measures the amount of steadiness\r\nof delay between two similar waveforms. They can be in or out of phase. Phase\r\nis measured in polarity, duration and amplitude.</p>\r\n\r\n<p><b>Phase lock</b> – when two waveforms oscillate with a stable phase\r\ndifference, which may or may not be 1:1.</p>\r\n\r\n<p><b>Phase lag</b> - a\r\nmeasurement of the time delay required for two waves to come into alignment\r\n(peak and trough at the same time)</p>\r\n\r\n<p><b>Biphasic / triphasic –</b><b> </b>a complex wave that has more\r\nthan one “turn” of polarity (2 or 3, respectively).</p>\r\n\r\n<p><b>Polarity – </b>Can be\r\npositive or negative and are represented inversely. Polarity is derived from\r\nthe summation of inputs in a derivation.<b></b></p>\r\n\r\n<p><b>Power </b>– magnitude\r\nsquared. </p>\r\n\r\n<p><b>Absolute power</b> – the actual power in the EEG<b></b></p>\r\n\r\n<p><b>Power asymmetry</b> ­- measures\r\nthe differences in power between homologous sites. It is basically a\r\nmeasurement of balance in brain activity across hemispheres.</p>\r\n\r\n<p><b>Relative power</b> - the\r\nproportion of power in one frequency or frequency band to the total EEG power </p>\r\n\r\n<p><b>Reactivity – </b>the\r\ndegree that the EEG responds to internal or external stimuli.<b> </b></p>\r\n\r\n<p><b>Rhythmicity – </b>The\r\n“perfectness” of a waveform – Rhythmic refers to one that does not shift in\r\namplitude, frequency or duration. Semi-rhythmic refers to waveforms that are\r\nsomewhat rhythmic and irregular.</p>\r\n\r\n<p><b>Sensitivity</b> – the\r\nmagnification of the viewing or display software. Sensitivity and gain are\r\nreciprocal.</p>\r\n\r\n<p><b>Sharp wave -</b> A triangular shaped wave that lasts 70-200 msec and is associated with epileptogenic presentation.</p>\r\n\r\n<p><b>Specificity</b> – the\r\naccuracy of the measure derived from the EEG to determine pathology. For\r\nexample, transient, interictal EEG behavior is specific to diagnosing epilepsy.</p>\r\n\r\n<p><b>Spike</b> – Sharply\r\nshaped wave commonly associated with ‘spike and weave” morphology of\r\nepileptiform activity. Usually with duration of 20 to 70 msec. </p>\r\n\r\n<p><b>Volume conduction –</b>\r\nThe passage of an electrical current through a conducting substance – in this\r\ncase the pyramidal synaptic gaps of the cortex through the scalp.&nbsp; </p>\r\n\r\n<p><b>Wavelet\r\ntransformation</b> ­– combines time and frequency domain measures in an XY\r\naxis. Used to determine the pattern at which the EEG occurs over time.</p><p></p><p><b>Sub-harmonic -</b>&nbsp;A frequency that is below the fundamental frequency, which divides evenly into the fundamental frequency.</p><p></p><p></p><p><b>Synchrony -&nbsp;</b>A balance that occurs if waves of similar frequency occur simultaneously in different areas of the head. Waves that occur in different channels without a constant time relationship to each other are called asynchronous.<br></p><p><br></p><p></p><h2><a name=\"_Toc29328766\">Slow Cortical Potentials</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p>Slow cortical potentials create\r\nnetworks and thus allow the brain to turn on and off any network. SCP causes\r\nthe binding of networks, which is caused when glia generate a negative wave. This\r\ngeneration is caused by the ATP<a href=\"#_ftn1\" name=\"_ftnref1\" title=\"\"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[1]<!--[endif]--></a>\r\ncycle , which is the generation of an electrically negative charge by burning blood\r\nsugar and creating energy (Co2 + water). A positive wave generated by glia is a\r\ncalcium channel wave. Glia “primes” an area, which is essentially the act of\r\nintention.</p><div>\r\n\r\n<hr align=\"left\" size=\"1\" width=\"33%\">\r\n\r\n<!--[endif]-->\r\n\r\n<div id=\"ftn1\">\r\n\r\n<p><a href=\"#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftn1\" title=\"\"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[1]<!--[endif]--></a> <b>Adenosine triphosphate</b>&nbsp;(<b>ATP</b>)\r\nis a complex&nbsp;organic chemical&nbsp;that\r\nprovides energy to drive many processes in living&nbsp;cells, e.g. muscle contraction,\r\nnerve impulse propagation, and chemical synthesis. Found in all forms of life,\r\nATP is often referred to as the \"molecular unit of&nbsp;currency\" of\r\nintracellular&nbsp;energy transfer.<sup>[2]</sup>&nbsp;When consumed in&nbsp;metabolic&nbsp;processes, it converts\r\neither to&nbsp;adenosine diphosphate&nbsp;(ADP) or to&nbsp;adenosine monophosphate&nbsp;(AMP)</p><p></p><p>&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc29328767\">Delta</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<h3><a name=\"_Toc29328768\">Healthy Delta</a></h3>\r\n\r\n<p><b><u>Delta rhythm</u></b> is a\r\nbrainwave that is most commonly seen in deep dreamless sleep (NREM 4) in\r\nhealthy adults and children. It is also a dominant brainwave in infants, since\r\nthe earliest stages of life are times of, one, a lot of sleep, and two,\r\nneurogenesis and angiogenesis. Young brains form, develop and grow with the\r\nproduction of delta. Although\r\nusually thought of as being associated with sleep and parts of the brain being\r\n“off line,” taking up nourishment, delta activity is always present in normal\r\nEEG’s of any age.&nbsp; It is generated cortically and inhibited by afferent\r\nstimulation of the cortex.&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<p>There\r\nis a substantial QEEG literature relating delta power to higher-order mental\r\nfunctions in normal awake humans.&nbsp; Increased delta activity has been\r\nobserved in normal subjects performing calculations, taking reaction time\r\ntests, and thinking abstract thoughts.&nbsp; Delta is thought to have a functional\r\nrole in allocating attention to internal mental representations, by suppressing\r\nextraneous cortical inputs and facilitating internal concentration. Anterior\r\nlead voltage in awake subjects is 20%-30% delta.&nbsp; &nbsp;</p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;</span><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Healthy%20Delta.png\" alt=\"Healthy Delta\" width=\"508\" height=\"381\" class=\"atto_image_button_middle\" style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;\"></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p></p><p><br></p></div></div><h3>Unhealthy Delta</h3><p style=\"text-align: left;\">&nbsp; &nbsp;<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Unhealthy%20Delta.png\" alt=\"Unhealthy Delta\" width=\"1087\" height=\"540\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\">&nbsp;<br></p><p></p><h3><a name=\"_Toc29328769\"><br></a></h3><h3><a name=\"_Toc29328769\">Pathological\r\nHigh Amplitude Delta</a></h3>\r\n\r\nWhen\r\ndelta is pathological, it represents cognitive impairment or of brain damage. Delta\r\nexcesses often correlated with damage to the white matter (the white matter\r\naxons are exclusively excitatory). Focal&nbsp;delta activity should always be\r\nconsidered abnormal, possibly indicating a lesion, and should result in\r\nreferral of the patient to a neurologist for further evaluation.&nbsp; Generalized\r\nbackground slowing indicates diffuse cerebral dysfunction, which, similar to\r\nfocal slowing, is also not specific as to cause. Delta can indicate the effects\r\nof sedative centrally acting medications, neurodegenerative disorders, a\r\nwidespread neurodevelopmental disorder, hydrocephalus, metabolic or toxic\r\nencephalopathy, CNS infectious disorders such as meningoencephalitis, traumatic\r\nbrain injury, hypoxia, or anoxia. The delta band may be composed of delta rhythm\r\nactivity (usually over 75 µV and rather rhythmic), slow cortical&nbsp;potentials (DC shifts) at\r\n.5 Hz and below, and also artifact (e.g., eye movement, glossokinetic artifact,\r\nelectrodermal or sweat artifact).&nbsp;<br><br><p></p><p></p><h4>Focal Delta in a 12-year-old girl with complications from an\r\nanoxic head injury</h4><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Focal%20Delta.png\" alt=\"Focal Delta\" width=\"930\" height=\"796\" style=\"text-align: center; \" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p></p><p><br></p><p><span style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.286rem;\">Focal Delta in a 12-year-old girl with complications from an\r\nanoxic head injury</span><br></p><p></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Focal%20Delta%202.png\" alt=\"Focal Delta 2\" width=\"711\" height=\"447\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\" style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;\"></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p></p><p></p><p>An excess of delta\r\nactivity may be seen in the records of individuals with learning disabilities,\r\nAlzheimer’s disease, demyelination, toxic or metabolic disturbances, edema, and\r\nwith aging there is frequently an increase of delta waves, especially in the\r\nleft hemisphere.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p><h3>FIRDA</h3><p>Pathological delta patterns, known as FIRDA (Frontal\r\nIntermittent Rhythmic Delta Activity) and OIRDA (Occipital Intermittent\r\nRhythmic Delta Activity) are abnormal and pathological delta patterns. FIRDA is\r\na transient, rhythmic slow wave pattern over the anterior EEG leads, that\r\nindicates cerebral lesions, circulation infarcts, stroke victims, and various\r\nmetabolic disturbances.</p><p></p><p>FIRDA and OIRDA (Occipital Intermittent Rhythmic Delta Activity) are the same condition at different stages of brain development. &nbsp;This can be a deep near midline disturbance, or a diffuse anoxic/hypoxia/metabolic issue as the common etiology.</p><div><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">Like other issues projecting to the surface via the cingulate, the pathways in early life are more restricted to posterior cingulate, as the anterior portions are not yet myelinated, finally getting ‘hooked up’ in the late teens or early 20s. Thus, \"h</span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">edonic theta\" in infants is posterior, and in adults (where it is more difficult to elicit) it is frontal at the midline in a dopamine rich distribution.</span></div><div><br></div><div>FIRDA requires the development of projections to the anterior cortical areas which are not available to the very young who can only make it occipitally (OIRDA)</div><div><br></div><div></div><br><p></p><h4>FIRDA\r\nPattern in an elderly woman with metabolic encephalopathy</h4><p></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;</span><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/FIRDA%20pattern.png\" alt=\"FIRDA Pattern\" width=\"645\" height=\"471\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\" style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;\"></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p></p><p><br></p><p><span style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.286rem;\">Global Delta in Head Injury, Deprivation of Oxygen for Prolonged\r\nPeriod of Time</span><br></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Delta%20and%20TBI.png\" alt=\"Delta and TBI\" width=\"1000\" height=\"563\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\" style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;\"></p><p></p><p><br></p><p><a name=\"_Toc29328770\" style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.715rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\">Pathological\r\nLow Amplitude Delta</a><br></p>\r\n\r\n<p>Decreased delta power in\r\nquantitative EEGs has been found to be associated sometimes with complicated\r\ndepression, chronic migraine, closed posterior head/neck injury, alcoholism,\r\nand a subgroup of patients who display lack of control over repetitive thoughts\r\nand behaviors and minor motor symptoms (Gerez-Malo &amp; Tell-Valdes, 1996).&nbsp;Low voltage delta can also\r\nindicate an old injury or a series of injuries (such is the case with\r\nprofessional athletes (soccer, rugby, and football players) who take many blows\r\nto the head.</p><h4><br></h4><h4>QEEG of a football player who sustained many concussions and blows to the head. He\r\nexperiences short term memory impairment</h4><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/blue%20brain.png\" alt=\"blue brain\" width=\"723\" height=\"942\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\"><br></p><p></p><h3><a name=\"_Toc29328771\"><br></a></h3><h3><a name=\"_Toc29328771\">Pathological\r\nDelta: Concussion and Mild Traumatic Brain Injury</a></h3>\r\n\r\n<p><a name=\"_Hlk25008071\">Often in a concussion, the </a><span lang=\"EN-CA\">initial impact will lead the brain to\r\nrelease the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate at the areas of damage, which\r\ncauses a rapid depolarization of the local neurons. After this, the axonal\r\nsodium/potassium pump goes into overdrive to rebalance ion/voltage imbalance,\r\nmore ATP (energy) is required,</span> there is a <span lang=\"EN-CA\">jump in glucose metabolism, and </span>e<span lang=\"EN-CA\">xtracellular swelling starts, reducing blood flow.\r\nThen the increase in metabolism with reduced blood flow causes an energy crisis\r\nin the cell. Cell is unable to carry out regular activity due to lack of energy\r\nand</span> o<span lang=\"EN-CA\">ften entire cell groups will go dormant to\r\npreserve themselves. </span><span lang=\"EN-CA\">This is one cause of a low voltage EEG. </span></p>\r\n\r\n<p>It is very\r\nlikely that, after a career of having hard knocks to the skull, a client’s\r\nbrain will form scar tissue at the sites of the accident (after initially\r\nexperiencing a state of inflammation). If the inflammation is not able to\r\nproperly heal the brain—which is its’ function—then the brain will ultimately\r\nlearn to handle the inflammation by altering cellular structures to form tougher\r\ntissues, which would consequentially prevent blood perfusion at the sites of\r\nthe injury and prevent the slower brainwaves of delta and theta\r\nfrom being read from the surface. Among the symptoms that are commonly reported\r\nin patients with TBI and mild TBI include impairment in attention, memory,\r\npsychomotor speed, and executive functions.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>Some of the symptoms the client may experience as a result of his\r\nhead injury include: </p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Difficulty figuring out how to do new things</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Disorganization</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Difficulty completing activities in a reasonable amount of time</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Slower learning than is normal</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Becoming easily angered or frustrated</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Difficulty with word finding</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Extreme sensitivity to light and/or sounds</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Difficulty with concentration or focus</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Easily distracted</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Spacing out</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Headaches</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Forgetfulness</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Impulsivity, impatience, risk taking, rudeness, social impropriety</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Fatigue</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Difficulty with balance, dizziness, clumsiness and even\r\nincontinence</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Problems reading</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Confusion with puzzles, directions, and telling left from right</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Difficulty understanding others</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Difficulty switching from one task to another, especially when\r\nunexpected.</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Getting lost easily</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Feeling fidgety</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Emotional difficulties (depression, fear, nightmares)</p><p><br></p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Dopamine%20System.png\" alt=\"Dopamine System\" width=\"520\" height=\"478\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br><p></p><p><a name=\"_Hlk530947264\">Groups with a delta deficit include cocaine addicts, ADD, subtypes of OCD, and schizophrenia—all of whom have problems with frontal cortical regulation of attention or impulsive behavior, as well as the processing of extraneous stimuli.</a>&nbsp; There is evidence suggesting a significant functional relationship of the delta rhythm to the mesotelencephalic dopamine (DA) projection.&nbsp;</p><p><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">The\r\nestimated location of the major site for delta generation in midline and the\r\nanterior frontal cortex corresponds with the location of the main cortical\r\nterminal field of the mesotelencephalic DA projection.&nbsp;</span><br></p>\r\n\r\n<h3><a name=\"_Toc29328772\"><br></a></h3><h3><a name=\"_Toc29328772\"><br></a></h3><h3><a name=\"_Toc29328772\"><br></a></h3><h3><a name=\"_Toc29328772\"><br></a></h3><h3><a name=\"_Hlk28339132\"></a><a name=\"_Toc29328772\">Psychodynamic Delta</a>\r\n</h3>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n<p>The basis of my\r\nconceptualization of EEG, which has formed from the works of many seminal\r\nauthors and scholars, is as follows: Delta (1-4Hz) is the collective\r\nunconscious, a low frequency, high amplitude brainwave that is connected with\r\npsi-phenomena, pre-cognitive abilities, connection with nature, and deep\r\nemotional intelligence (Wise, 1995, 2002). Delta is the rhythm of the heart.</p><p>Delta arises out of the cosmic\r\nunconscious; Wise (1995, 2002) believed that delta was pronounced in healers,\r\nseers, or traumatized individuals. That is, the traumatized child may rely more\r\nheavily on premonition or gut instinct, to prevent being abused. Those with\r\nhigher amplitude delta, according to Wise, may be hypervigilant or even have\r\nextra-sensory perception. Delta is the deep primal intuition, instinctual\r\naction, empathy and radar, allowing us to glean information that might not be\r\navailable via consciousness (Wise, 1995, 2002).</p>\r\n\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc29328773\">Theta</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p>Theta is a\r\nfrequency of 4-8Hz that emanates from the thalamus to the cortex and back\r\nagain, it is a thalamo-cortical frequency and arrives in states of trance, deep\r\nmeditation, drowsiness, under hypnosis and at the top of sleep cycle for\r\nhealthy adults (REM sleep) during dream state. Theta also arrives in non rapid\r\neye movement sleep (NREM 2 and NREM 3) at the midline and is part of what is\r\ncalled a “K-complex.” &nbsp;</p>Otherwise, healthy theta is seen in children under\r\n9 years of age and is linked up to the visual gestalt in infants. Theta is\r\nsimilar to delta in that it is indicative of neurogenesis in the infant and\r\nchild. From an empirical perspective, theta is one of the main rhythms of the\r\nhippocampus, where it is linked to memory encoding, spatial memory, and\r\ncognitive processes (Gorochowski, 2009; Stam, 2006). This has been found in\r\nmany studies using rats. However, from intracranially implanted electrodes in\r\nseizure patients, Cantero&nbsp;<i>et\r\nal.</i>&nbsp;(<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theta_wave#refCantero2003\">2003</a>) found that oscillations in the 4–7&nbsp;Hz frequency range could be\r\nrecorded from both the hippocampus and neocortex in humans, whereas previously\r\nit was not known if humans created hippocampal theta, as rats do. The\r\nhippocampal oscillations were associated with REM sleep and the transition from\r\nsleep to waking, and came in brief bursts, usually less than a second long.\r\nCortical&nbsp;theta\r\noscillations, arising from the thalamus and other subcortical structures, were\r\nobserved during the transition from sleep and during quiet wakefulness;\r\nhowever, the authors were unable to find any correlation between hippocampal\r\nand cortical theta waves, and concluded that the two processes are probably controlled\r\nby independent mechanisms, however they are likely related. Cortical\r\ntheta is generated from the thalamus and the nucleus accumbens in the forebrain.\r\nFrontal\r\nmidline theta, as seen in brief bursts on memory retrieval tasks as the nucleus\r\naccumbens provides acetylcholine to the temporal lobe\'s limbic structures via\r\nthe diagonal band of Broca, which is connected to the amygdala/hippocampus\r\ncomplex, allowing rhythmicity (Gunkelman, 2014).&nbsp; Memory uses theta as a carrier wave, upon\r\nwhich other, faster frequencies can ride; the nesting of faster, gamma waves\r\nupon theta waves promotes short term memory (DeRidder, 2014; Klimesh, Sauseng,\r\n&amp; Hanslmeyer, 2007). According to Gorochowski (2009), theta modulates\r\ngamma, which allows for the construction (and reconstruction) of a\r\nlow-frequency-modulating-phase.<p></p><p><a name=\"_Toc29328774\" style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.715rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\">Healthy Theta</a></p><p></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/HEalthy%20Theta.png\" alt=\"Healthy Theta\" width=\"610\" height=\"407\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\" style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"></p>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nTheta\r\nrhythm is a normal finding during drowsiness in the adult EEG. Theta, may be\r\nseen at the onset of sleep as the alpha rhythm slows with drowsiness. Theta is\r\nalso the brainwave state of dreams. As earlier\r\nmentioned, the slow waves that occur here correspond to rapid eye movement\r\n(REM), which is thought to be healing, developing, and rejuvenating (Crick\r\n&amp; Michison, 1983; Evans, 1983; Ornstein, 1986; Oswald, 1980; Shaffery,\r\nOksenberg, Marks, Speciale, Mihailoff, &amp;\r\nRoffwarg, 1998; Siegel, 2010). In 1953, the hypnogogic brainwave state\r\nwas discovered, consisting of a period of several minutes where the mind is overtaken with image fragments or short\r\ndramas. At that time, this hypnogogic state was dubbed “theta” and was seen in\r\nasynchronous oscillations of 5-8 hertz (i.e., 5 to 8 waveforms over the course\r\nof 1 second) occurring over the cortex of the brain. Rhythmic or “synchronous” theta was found to&nbsp;<span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">be\r\npresent in the awake raw EEG, increasing as subjects got drowsy or started\r\ndaydreaming (Ulrich, 2013, pp. 38-39).</span><p></p>\r\n\r\n<p>From an\r\nempirical brainwave perspective, the brain wave\r\npatterns of the dreamer have been identified as asynchronous theta and REM\r\nsleep state, which is activated endogenously in the dreaming state. Their\r\nfunction, according to Winson (2002) is to further process the memory contents\r\nof the past while the individual is asleep. The hippocampus is foundational for\r\nits generation in sleep, which allows for the mapping of the sensorimotor,\r\ntemporal, and environmental space (Bland &amp; Oddie, 2001). This mapping may\r\nbe linked to the storage of procedural memory, since the right parietal\r\ncortical areas (housing the right hippocampus and the medial temporal lobe\r\ndiencephalon) are activated in spatial and mental imagery exercises (Schore,\r\n2003; Solms &amp; Turnbull, 2002). This is the same area as that which becomes\r\nactivated both in dreaming and in the infant’s breast-feeding (Winson, 2002).</p><p>Theta\r\ngeneration has been linked to the replenishing of important neuronal\r\nproteins, for cell and synaptic growth, as well as the production of growth\r\nhormones, neurochemicals, neurotransmitters, and neuromodulators (Shaffery et\r\nal., 1998). Furthermore, REM sleep has been linked to the development of the\r\nhippocampi—the seat of learning and memory (Lewin\r\n&amp; Glaubman, 1975; Shaffery et al., 1998).<a name=\"_Hlk517070865\"> Theta is a rejuvenating brainwave, responsible for\r\nneurogenesis and healing. It is these slow waves that the infant and child\r\nspend much of their time in, as these are essential to the building of\r\nnetworks, as well as feelings of safe, calm, and protectedness.</a></p><h2><a name=\"_Toc29328775\">Pathological Theta</a></h2><p><a name=\"_Toc29328775\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Unhealthy%20Theta.png\" alt=\"unhealthy theta\" width=\"1008\" height=\"540\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\" style=\"text-align: center;\"></a></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><a name=\"_Toc29328775\"><br></a></p><p></p><br><p></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p></p><p>Unhealthy theta can mean many different\r\nthings in EEG. From a clinical perspective, theta can indicate concussion or\r\nhead trauma, as well as attention deficit disorder, distractibility, foggy\r\nthinking, inability to sequence tasks, forgetfulness, or daydreamy-ness. One\r\nwith excess theta might be accused of being a “space-cadet.” &nbsp;Having too much theta with eyes open would\r\ncause one to feel unable to focus on the task at hand for a long period of\r\ntime. Any \"theta band\"\r\nactivity may be slowed thalamo-cortical alpha or limbically generated rhythmic\r\nslow activity (theta), as stated in Steriade\'s 1990 IFCN position paper (in the articles folder for this chapter).</p><p><br></p><h4>Post\r\nConcussive Syndrome in a 17-year old Soccer Athlete, excessive occipital theta\r\n(Z-score summary map)</h4><p></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;</span><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Post%20Concussive%20Syndrome.png\" alt=\"Post Concussive Syndrome\" width=\"720\" height=\"955\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\" style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;\"></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p></p><p></p><h4>Excessive Theta at the right posterior temporal lobe (Eyes\r\nClosed)</h4>\r\n\r\n<h4>&nbsp;(Raw Data)</h4><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Excessive%20Theta.png\" alt=\"Excessive Theta\" width=\"717\" height=\"1108\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><p>When there is a\r\nlack of blood flow and oxygen to the area, there is often a consequential\r\nslowing of alpha at the area, sometimes into the theta range. As an area\r\ndegrades, sometimes the alpha slows considerably below the normal alpha band\r\n(i.e. less than 8hz). A slowed alpha can represent a compromise of blood flow,\r\nand consequentially oxygen, to an area, which will lead to ischemia. The dip in\r\nalpha frequency will indicate how severe the ischemia is (Classen and Foreman,\r\n2012). Theta will arise with grey matter damage, which can be resultant of a\r\ntrauma (such as a blow to the head), a vascular anomaly, an aneurism or\r\nstructural anomaly (like the jarring of the cerebro-cervical juncture in a car\r\naccident).</p><br><p></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><h3><br></h3><p><br></p><p><br></p><h3>Theta and Vascular Dementia</h3><p></p><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;</span><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Theta%20and%20Vascular%20Dementia.png\" alt=\"Theta and Vascular Dementia\" width=\"835\" height=\"661\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\" style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;\"></p><p style=\"text-align: left;\"><br></p><p></p><p><a name=\"_Toc29328776\" style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.715rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\">Psychodynamic Theta</a><br></p>\r\n\r\n<p>From Wise’s\r\nperspective (1995, 2002), theta is the subconscious, akin to Jung’s personal\r\nunconscious. It is the individual’s repressed materials, the abuses, the\r\ntraumas, the trials, the tribulations, and the terrors. Theta is also the\r\nreverie, the deep longings and wishes, all those things that we push down, to\r\nbe forgotten in our subconscious. Theta gives these deeply repressed memories\r\nlife at the top of the sleep cycle in the form of dreams. Wise (1995, 2002)\r\nnotes that theta can also be a repository for suppressed creativity and\r\ninspiration; she felt that theta was particularly strong during peak\r\nexperiences, spiritual insights, and high-functioning brain states (such as\r\ndeep meditation). She thought that theta brainwave states—which occur predominantly\r\nwhen we dream—were affiliated with the subconscious (a match for Jung’s\r\npersonal unconscious): underlying interpretations and meanings that we are not\r\nprivy to, but which we create—those that reside under the threshold of our\r\nawareness.&nbsp; The personal unconscious is\r\nthe place where we bury our shadows and from which our behaviors unconsciously\r\nemerge.&nbsp; </p><h3><a name=\"_Toc29328777\">Lambda</a></h3>\r\n\r\n<p>Lambda is a triangular shaped wave\r\nat the occipital leads that represents visual tracking. It’s a visual, event\r\nrelated potential that has to do with visual searching—it is like an “aha” when\r\nyou see something. Lambda is called lambdoid or lambdotal if your eyes are\r\nclosed.&nbsp; You can see repeated sharp\r\ntransients in the back of the head in an adult that is reading or watching a\r\nmovie. If a person is put on a task reading and you see theta or higher\r\nfrequency delta in the back of the head, do not interpret it as a problem,\r\nbecause it might be a lambda wave form showing up. Lambda waves are found\r\nmostly in patients 6 months to 10 years. </p><h4>Lambda in a client watching a movie</h4><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/LAmbda.png\" alt=\"Lambda\" width=\"764\" height=\"515\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\" style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"></p><p></p><p><br></p><p></p><h3>Lambda in a qEEG</h3><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Lambda%20in%20a%20QEEG.png\" alt=\"Lambda in a QEEG\" width=\"705\" height=\"480\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_middle\" style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"></p><p></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><a name=\"_Toc29328778\" style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 2.143rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\">POSTS (Positive Occipital Sharp Transients of Sleep)</a><br></p><h2><a name=\"_Toc29328778\" style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"><ul style=\"display: inline !important;\"><li style=\"display: inline !important;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">POSTS looks like lambda except they occur in sleep. This morphological signature</span></li></ul></a><a name=\"_Toc29328778\" style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem; font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;, sans-serif;\"><ul style=\"display: inline !important;\"><li style=\"display: inline !important;\">may also appear in trains and give the false appearance of rhythmic epileptiform activity. This is a normal finding and does not suggest clinical significance.</li></ul></a></h2><p style=\"text-align: center;\"><a name=\"_Toc29328778\"><img src=\"data:image/png;base64,[encoded data, 160378 characters]