<p></p><p>Between 460 and 379 B.C.&nbsp;<b>Hippocrates</b>&nbsp;first proposed the brain was the source of sensation, emotions and human intelligence. Within a few years (387 B.C.)&nbsp;<b>Plato</b>&nbsp;followed suit, noting the brain was the seat of mental processes. Between 335 and 280 BC Herophilus noted that the ventricles were the seat of human intelligence.</p><p><span style="font-size: 1rem;"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Galen.png" alt="Galen" width="300" height="495" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_left">In 177A.D.,&nbsp;</span><b style="font-size: 1rem;">Galen&nbsp;</b><span style="font-size: 1rem;">lectured “On the Brain” and developed a hypothesis that the brain had ventricles that contained a liquid substance that controlled how a person behaved or thought.&nbsp; He believed that the grey matter and the rest of the brain were not important.&nbsp; (This was of course the cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) that fills the brain ventricles and flows up and down the spinal cord.</span></p><p>Research into the brain came to a halt in the fourth century when the church declared dissection of a human body to be punished by torture or death. In 1347, the Black Plague led to the loss of a third of Europe’s population.&nbsp; At that point, the church lost credibility and released its ban on human research.&nbsp; The Renaissance followed, and between 1500-1600&nbsp;<b>Leonardo da Vinci,</b>&nbsp;as well as a whole host of European anatomical explorers began to dissect and name structures of the brain.</p><p></p><p>In 1543,&nbsp;<b>Andreas Vesalius&nbsp;</b>was the first to question the doctrine that cerebro-spinal fluid in the brain was the substance that controlled thought.&nbsp; He stated that because the ventricles were the same in both humans and lower animals, they could not be the source of human intelligence and thought.&nbsp; Vesalius believed that the larger and more developed cerebral cortex of the brain (the &nbsp;grey matter) was the source of intelligence. This thought was later reinforced by the anatomist,&nbsp;<b>Thomas Willis.</b></p><p><b><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Ventricles.png" alt="Ventricles" width="300" height="283" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_right"></b></p><p>In the seventeenth century, philosopher&nbsp;<b>Rene’ Descartes&nbsp;</b>endorsed a belief in dualism, better known as the Cartesian divide. Descartes&nbsp;purported that the body and the soul were separate; the soul was a gift from God, as well as the controller of thought and emotion. The soul, said Descartes, was provided stored in the brain’s pineal gland.&nbsp; He was the first to attempt to assign a function to a portion of the brain. &nbsp;</p><p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Pineal%20Gland.png" alt="Pineal Gland" width="300" height="235" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_left"><span style="font-size: 1rem;">After Descartes successfully divided the mind and the brain up into two&nbsp;essentially different substances, he found difficulty reconciling their causal interactions&nbsp;(Kim, 1993). The “</span><b style="font-size: 1rem;">hard problem of consciousness</b><span style="font-size: 1rem;">,” as it has been dubbed in academic&nbsp;circles, still remains as a question over the division of mind and the brain. One camp believes the mind and the brain are indivisible—that is, the mind is simply the reaction of neurotransmission, neuronal firings, and the flow of blood and hormones (Churchland, 1989; Dennett, 1993, 2003, 2014; Graziano, 2013). The other camp believes there is something else involved—that mind is not simply chemical and hormonal actions and interactions—and there is something much more meaningful at work (Chalmers, 1995, 1996, 2002; Nagel, 1974,&nbsp;1986, 2012). This paradox is akin to the physics paradox that light is both a wave and a&nbsp;particle, where the mind is a wave, yet the brain is an identifiable particle. Modell (2012)&nbsp;believes this type of thinking must pervade our conception as it pertains to the&nbsp;intersection of neuroscience and psychoanalysis. It is indeed interesting in the light of applied psychophysiology</span></p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Wave%20and%20Particle.png" alt="Galen" width="600" height="621" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_left" style="text-align: center;"><p style="text-align: center;"><br></p><p></p>