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--
-- Table structure for table `mdl_grade_letters`
--

CREATE TABLE `mdl_grade_letters` (
  `id` bigint(10) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
  `contextid` bigint(10) NOT NULL,
  `lowerboundary` decimal(10,5) NOT NULL,
  `letter` varchar(255) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
  PRIMARY KEY (`id`),
  UNIQUE KEY `mdl_gradlett_conlowlet_uix` (`contextid`,`lowerboundary`,`letter`)
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8mb4 ROW_FORMAT=COMPRESSED COMMENT='Repository for grade letters, for courses and other moodle e';

--
-- Dumping data for table `mdl_grade_letters`
--


--
-- Table structure for table `mdl_grade_outcomes`
--

CREATE TABLE `mdl_grade_outcomes` (
  `id` bigint(10) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
  `courseid` bigint(10) DEFAULT NULL,
  `shortname` varchar(255) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
  `fullname` longtext NOT NULL,
  `scaleid` bigint(10) DEFAULT NULL,
  `description` longtext,
  `descriptionformat` tinyint(2) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `timecreated` bigint(10) DEFAULT NULL,
  `timemodified` bigint(10) DEFAULT NULL,
  `usermodified` bigint(10) DEFAULT NULL,
  PRIMARY KEY (`id`),
  UNIQUE KEY `mdl_gradoutc_cousho_uix` (`courseid`,`shortname`),
  KEY `mdl_gradoutc_cou_ix` (`courseid`),
  KEY `mdl_gradoutc_sca_ix` (`scaleid`),
  KEY `mdl_gradoutc_use_ix` (`usermodified`)
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8mb4 ROW_FORMAT=COMPRESSED COMMENT='This table describes the outcomes used in the system. An out';

--
-- Dumping data for table `mdl_grade_outcomes`
--


--
-- Table structure for table `mdl_grade_outcomes_courses`
--

CREATE TABLE `mdl_grade_outcomes_courses` (
  `id` bigint(10) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
  `courseid` bigint(10) NOT NULL,
  `outcomeid` bigint(10) NOT NULL,
  PRIMARY KEY (`id`),
  UNIQUE KEY `mdl_gradoutccour_couout_uix` (`courseid`,`outcomeid`),
  KEY `mdl_gradoutccour_cou_ix` (`courseid`),
  KEY `mdl_gradoutccour_out_ix` (`outcomeid`)
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8mb4 ROW_FORMAT=COMPRESSED COMMENT='stores what outcomes are used in what courses.';

--
-- Dumping data for table `mdl_grade_outcomes_courses`
--


--
-- Table structure for table `mdl_grade_outcomes_history`
--

CREATE TABLE `mdl_grade_outcomes_history` (
  `id` bigint(10) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
  `action` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `oldid` bigint(10) NOT NULL,
  `source` varchar(255) DEFAULT NULL,
  `timemodified` bigint(10) DEFAULT NULL,
  `loggeduser` bigint(10) DEFAULT NULL,
  `courseid` bigint(10) DEFAULT NULL,
  `shortname` varchar(255) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
  `fullname` longtext NOT NULL,
  `scaleid` bigint(10) DEFAULT NULL,
  `description` longtext,
  `descriptionformat` tinyint(2) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  PRIMARY KEY (`id`),
  KEY `mdl_gradoutchist_act_ix` (`action`),
  KEY `mdl_gradoutchist_tim_ix` (`timemodified`),
  KEY `mdl_gradoutchist_old_ix` (`oldid`),
  KEY `mdl_gradoutchist_cou_ix` (`courseid`),
  KEY `mdl_gradoutchist_sca_ix` (`scaleid`),
  KEY `mdl_gradoutchist_log_ix` (`loggeduser`)
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8mb4 ROW_FORMAT=COMPRESSED COMMENT='History table';

--
-- Dumping data for table `mdl_grade_outcomes_history`
--


--
-- Table structure for table `mdl_grade_settings`
--

CREATE TABLE `mdl_grade_settings` (
  `id` bigint(10) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
  `courseid` bigint(10) NOT NULL,
  `name` varchar(255) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
  `value` longtext,
  PRIMARY KEY (`id`),
  UNIQUE KEY `mdl_gradsett_counam_uix` (`courseid`,`name`),
  KEY `mdl_gradsett_cou_ix` (`courseid`)
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8mb4 ROW_FORMAT=COMPRESSED COMMENT='gradebook settings';

--
-- Dumping data for table `mdl_grade_settings`
--


--
-- Table structure for table `mdl_grading_areas`
--

CREATE TABLE `mdl_grading_areas` (
  `id` bigint(10) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
  `contextid` bigint(10) NOT NULL,
  `component` varchar(100) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
  `areaname` varchar(100) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
  `activemethod` varchar(100) DEFAULT NULL,
  PRIMARY KEY (`id`),
  UNIQUE KEY `mdl_gradarea_concomare_uix` (`contextid`,`component`,`areaname`),
  KEY `mdl_gradarea_con_ix` (`contextid`)
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8mb4 ROW_FORMAT=COMPRESSED COMMENT='Identifies gradable areas where advanced grading can happen.';

--
-- Dumping data for table `mdl_grading_areas`
--


--
-- Table structure for table `mdl_grading_definitions`
--

CREATE TABLE `mdl_grading_definitions` (
  `id` bigint(10) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
  `areaid` bigint(10) NOT NULL,
  `method` varchar(100) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
  `name` varchar(255) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
  `description` longtext,
  `descriptionformat` tinyint(2) DEFAULT NULL,
  `status` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `copiedfromid` bigint(10) DEFAULT NULL,
  `timecreated` bigint(10) NOT NULL,
  `usercreated` bigint(10) NOT NULL,
  `timemodified` bigint(10) NOT NULL,
  `usermodified` bigint(10) NOT NULL,
  `timecopied` bigint(10) DEFAULT '0',
  `options` longtext,
  PRIMARY KEY (`id`),
  UNIQUE KEY `mdl_graddefi_aremet_uix` (`areaid`,`method`),
  KEY `mdl_graddefi_are_ix` (`areaid`),
  KEY `mdl_graddefi_use_ix` (`usermodified`),
  KEY `mdl_graddefi_use2_ix` (`usercreated`)
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8mb4 ROW_FORMAT=COMPRESSED COMMENT='Contains the basic information about an advanced grading for';

--
-- Dumping data for table `mdl_grading_definitions`
--


--
-- Table structure for table `mdl_grading_instances`
--

CREATE TABLE `mdl_grading_instances` (
  `id` bigint(10) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
  `definitionid` bigint(10) NOT NULL,
  `raterid` bigint(10) NOT NULL,
  `itemid` bigint(10) DEFAULT NULL,
  `rawgrade` decimal(10,5) DEFAULT NULL,
  `status` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `feedback` longtext,
  `feedbackformat` tinyint(2) DEFAULT NULL,
  `timemodified` bigint(10) NOT NULL,
  PRIMARY KEY (`id`),
  KEY `mdl_gradinst_def_ix` (`definitionid`),
  KEY `mdl_gradinst_rat_ix` (`raterid`)
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8mb4 ROW_FORMAT=COMPRESSED COMMENT='Grading form instance is an assessment record for one gradab';

--
-- Dumping data for table `mdl_grading_instances`
--


--
-- Table structure for table `mdl_gradingform_guide_comments`
--

CREATE TABLE `mdl_gradingform_guide_comments` (
  `id` bigint(10) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
  `definitionid` bigint(10) NOT NULL,
  `sortorder` bigint(10) NOT NULL,
  `description` longtext,
  `descriptionformat` tinyint(2) DEFAULT NULL,
  PRIMARY KEY (`id`),
  KEY `mdl_gradguidcomm_def_ix` (`definitionid`)
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8mb4 ROW_FORMAT=COMPRESSED COMMENT='frequently used comments used in marking guide';

--
-- Dumping data for table `mdl_gradingform_guide_comments`
--


--
-- Table structure for table `mdl_gradingform_guide_criteria`
--

CREATE TABLE `mdl_gradingform_guide_criteria` (
  `id` bigint(10) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
  `definitionid` bigint(10) NOT NULL,
  `sortorder` bigint(10) NOT NULL,
  `shortname` varchar(255) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
  `description` longtext,
  `descriptionformat` tinyint(2) DEFAULT NULL,
  `descriptionmarkers` longtext,
  `descriptionmarkersformat` tinyint(2) DEFAULT NULL,
  `maxscore` decimal(10,5) NOT NULL,
  PRIMARY KEY (`id`),
  KEY `mdl_gradguidcrit_def_ix` (`definitionid`)
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8mb4 ROW_FORMAT=COMPRESSED COMMENT='Stores the rows of the criteria grid.';

--
-- Dumping data for table `mdl_gradingform_guide_criteria`
--


--
-- Table structure for table `mdl_gradingform_guide_fillings`
--

CREATE TABLE `mdl_gradingform_guide_fillings` (
  `id` bigint(10) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
  `instanceid` bigint(10) NOT NULL,
  `criterionid` bigint(10) NOT NULL,
  `remark` longtext,
  `remarkformat` tinyint(2) DEFAULT NULL,
  `score` decimal(10,5) NOT NULL,
  PRIMARY KEY (`id`),
  UNIQUE KEY `mdl_gradguidfill_inscri_uix` (`instanceid`,`criterionid`),
  KEY `mdl_gradguidfill_ins_ix` (`instanceid`),
  KEY `mdl_gradguidfill_cri_ix` (`criterionid`)
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8mb4 ROW_FORMAT=COMPRESSED COMMENT='Stores the data of how the guide is filled by a particular r';

--
-- Dumping data for table `mdl_gradingform_guide_fillings`
--


--
-- Table structure for table `mdl_gradingform_rubric_criteria`
--

CREATE TABLE `mdl_gradingform_rubric_criteria` (
  `id` bigint(10) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
  `definitionid` bigint(10) NOT NULL,
  `sortorder` bigint(10) NOT NULL,
  `description` longtext,
  `descriptionformat` tinyint(2) DEFAULT NULL,
  PRIMARY KEY (`id`),
  KEY `mdl_gradrubrcrit_def_ix` (`definitionid`)
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8mb4 ROW_FORMAT=COMPRESSED COMMENT='Stores the rows of the rubric grid.';

--
-- Dumping data for table `mdl_gradingform_rubric_criteria`
--


--
-- Table structure for table `mdl_gradingform_rubric_fillings`
--

CREATE TABLE `mdl_gradingform_rubric_fillings` (
  `id` bigint(10) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
  `instanceid` bigint(10) NOT NULL,
  `criterionid` bigint(10) NOT NULL,
  `levelid` bigint(10) DEFAULT NULL,
  `remark` longtext,
  `remarkformat` tinyint(2) DEFAULT NULL,
  PRIMARY KEY (`id`),
  UNIQUE KEY `mdl_gradrubrfill_inscri_uix` (`instanceid`,`criterionid`),
  KEY `mdl_gradrubrfill_lev_ix` (`levelid`),
  KEY `mdl_gradrubrfill_ins_ix` (`instanceid`),
  KEY `mdl_gradrubrfill_cri_ix` (`criterionid`)
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8mb4 ROW_FORMAT=COMPRESSED COMMENT='Stores the data of how the rubric is filled by a particular ';

--
-- Dumping data for table `mdl_gradingform_rubric_fillings`
--


--
-- Table structure for table `mdl_gradingform_rubric_levels`
--

CREATE TABLE `mdl_gradingform_rubric_levels` (
  `id` bigint(10) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
  `criterionid` bigint(10) NOT NULL,
  `score` decimal(10,5) NOT NULL,
  `definition` longtext,
  `definitionformat` bigint(10) DEFAULT NULL,
  PRIMARY KEY (`id`),
  KEY `mdl_gradrubrleve_cri_ix` (`criterionid`)
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8mb4 ROW_FORMAT=COMPRESSED COMMENT='Stores the columns of the rubric grid.';

--
-- Dumping data for table `mdl_gradingform_rubric_levels`
--


--
-- Table structure for table `mdl_groupings`
--

CREATE TABLE `mdl_groupings` (
  `id` bigint(10) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
  `courseid` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `name` varchar(255) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
  `idnumber` varchar(100) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
  `description` longtext,
  `descriptionformat` tinyint(2) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `configdata` longtext,
  `timecreated` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `timemodified` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  PRIMARY KEY (`id`),
  KEY `mdl_grou_idn2_ix` (`idnumber`),
  KEY `mdl_grou_cou2_ix` (`courseid`)
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8mb4 ROW_FORMAT=COMPRESSED COMMENT='A grouping is a collection of groups. WAS: groups_groupings';

--
-- Dumping data for table `mdl_groupings`
--


--
-- Table structure for table `mdl_groupings_groups`
--

CREATE TABLE `mdl_groupings_groups` (
  `id` bigint(10) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
  `groupingid` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `groupid` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `timeadded` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  PRIMARY KEY (`id`),
  KEY `mdl_grougrou_gro_ix` (`groupingid`),
  KEY `mdl_grougrou_gro2_ix` (`groupid`)
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8mb4 ROW_FORMAT=COMPRESSED COMMENT='Link a grouping to a group (note, groups can be in multiple ';

--
-- Dumping data for table `mdl_groupings_groups`
--


--
-- Table structure for table `mdl_groups`
--

CREATE TABLE `mdl_groups` (
  `id` bigint(10) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
  `courseid` bigint(10) NOT NULL,
  `idnumber` varchar(100) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
  `name` varchar(254) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
  `description` longtext,
  `descriptionformat` tinyint(2) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `enrolmentkey` varchar(50) DEFAULT NULL,
  `picture` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `hidepicture` tinyint(1) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `timecreated` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `timemodified` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  PRIMARY KEY (`id`),
  KEY `mdl_grou_idn_ix` (`idnumber`),
  KEY `mdl_grou_cou_ix` (`courseid`)
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8mb4 ROW_FORMAT=COMPRESSED COMMENT='Each record represents a group.';

--
-- Dumping data for table `mdl_groups`
--


--
-- Table structure for table `mdl_groups_members`
--

CREATE TABLE `mdl_groups_members` (
  `id` bigint(10) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
  `groupid` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `userid` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `timeadded` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `component` varchar(100) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
  `itemid` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  PRIMARY KEY (`id`),
  KEY `mdl_groumemb_gro_ix` (`groupid`),
  KEY `mdl_groumemb_use_ix` (`userid`)
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8mb4 ROW_FORMAT=COMPRESSED COMMENT='Link a user to a group.';

--
-- Dumping data for table `mdl_groups_members`
--


--
-- Table structure for table `mdl_imscp`
--

CREATE TABLE `mdl_imscp` (
  `id` bigint(10) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
  `course` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `name` varchar(255) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
  `intro` longtext,
  `introformat` smallint(4) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `revision` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `keepold` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '-1',
  `structure` longtext,
  `timemodified` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  PRIMARY KEY (`id`),
  KEY `mdl_imsc_cou_ix` (`course`)
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8mb4 ROW_FORMAT=COMPRESSED COMMENT='each record is one imscp resource';

--
-- Dumping data for table `mdl_imscp`
--


--
-- Table structure for table `mdl_label`
--

CREATE TABLE `mdl_label` (
  `id` bigint(10) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
  `course` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `name` varchar(255) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
  `intro` longtext NOT NULL,
  `introformat` smallint(4) DEFAULT '0',
  `timemodified` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  PRIMARY KEY (`id`),
  KEY `mdl_labe_cou_ix` (`course`)
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8mb4 ROW_FORMAT=COMPRESSED COMMENT='Defines labels';

--
-- Dumping data for table `mdl_label`
--


--
-- Table structure for table `mdl_lesson`
--

CREATE TABLE `mdl_lesson` (
  `id` bigint(10) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
  `course` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `name` varchar(255) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
  `intro` longtext,
  `introformat` smallint(4) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `practice` smallint(3) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `modattempts` smallint(3) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `usepassword` smallint(3) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `password` varchar(32) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
  `dependency` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `conditions` longtext NOT NULL,
  `grade` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `custom` smallint(3) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `ongoing` smallint(3) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `usemaxgrade` smallint(3) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `maxanswers` smallint(3) NOT NULL DEFAULT '4',
  `maxattempts` smallint(3) NOT NULL DEFAULT '5',
  `review` smallint(3) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `nextpagedefault` smallint(3) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `feedback` smallint(3) NOT NULL DEFAULT '1',
  `minquestions` smallint(3) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `maxpages` smallint(3) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `timelimit` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `retake` smallint(3) NOT NULL DEFAULT '1',
  `activitylink` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `mediafile` varchar(255) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
  `mediaheight` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '100',
  `mediawidth` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '650',
  `mediaclose` smallint(3) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `slideshow` smallint(3) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `width` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '640',
  `height` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '480',
  `bgcolor` varchar(7) NOT NULL DEFAULT '#FFFFFF',
  `displayleft` smallint(3) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `displayleftif` smallint(3) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `progressbar` smallint(3) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `available` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `deadline` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `timemodified` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `completionendreached` tinyint(1) DEFAULT '0',
  `completiontimespent` bigint(11) DEFAULT '0',
  `allowofflineattempts` tinyint(1) DEFAULT '0',
  PRIMARY KEY (`id`),
  KEY `mdl_less_cou_ix` (`course`)
) ENGINE=InnoDB AUTO_INCREMENT=114 DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8mb4 ROW_FORMAT=COMPRESSED COMMENT='Defines lesson';

--
-- Dumping data for table `mdl_lesson`
--

INSERT INTO `mdl_lesson` VALUES (2,3,'1) Basics Of The Procedure','',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,1,0,0,1592880422,0,0,0),(3,3,'2) Artifacting Data','<p>The software program you choose will have its own way of artifacting data (e.g. you will either select the portions of the data you want to save, select the portions of data you want to discard, or automatically select the portions of data you want to keep).<br></p>',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,1,0,0,1592880444,0,0,0),(4,5,'Introduction','<p>Introduction<br></p>',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,1,0,0,1592880960,0,0,0),(5,5,'Street Drugs','<p>Street Drugs<br></p>',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,1,0,0,1593952463,0,0,0),(10,55,'Basics Of The Procedure','',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,0,0,0,1571853987,0,0,0),(11,55,'Artifacting Data','<p>The software program you choose will have its own way of artifacting data (e.g. you will either select the portions of the data you want to save, select the portions of data you want to discard, or automatically select the portions of data you want to keep).<br></p>',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,0,0,0,1586518984,0,0,0),(13,55,'Introduction','<p>Intro</p>',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,0,0,0,1564772650,0,0,0),(14,55,'Street Drugs','<p>Street Drugs<br></p>',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,0,0,0,1564772781,0,0,0),(15,55,'Anti-Epileptic and Anti-Convulsant Drugs (AEDs)','<p>Anti-Epileptic and Anti-Convulsant Drugs (AEDs)<br></p>',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,0,0,0,1564773627,0,0,0),(16,55,'Analgesic drugs (pain killers)','<p>Analgesic drugs (pain killers)<br></p>',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,0,0,0,1564848624,0,0,0),(17,55,'Psychotropic & Behavioral Medications','<p>Psychotropic &amp; Behavioral Medications<br></p>',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,0,0,0,1564849568,0,0,0),(18,55,'Anesthetic & Sedative Medication','<p>Anesthetic &amp; Sedative 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allowfullscreen=\"\"></iframe></p>',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,0,0,0,1586874811,0,0,0),(20,57,'Introduction','<p><br></p>',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,0,0,0,1586607317,0,0,0),(22,58,'Introduction','',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,0,0,0,1572974353,0,0,0),(23,59,'Introduction','',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,0,0,0,1572320316,0,0,0),(24,55,'Origins of 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Central Nervous System and McLean\'s Triune Brain Theory','',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,0,0,0,1587043716,0,0,0),(47,55,'The Reptilian Brain','',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,0,0,0,1587044309,0,0,0),(48,55,'The Limbic System','',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,0,0,0,1587044600,0,0,0),(49,55,'The Neo-Mammilian Brain: The Cortex','',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,0,0,0,1587045940,0,0,0),(50,55,'Lobes','',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,0,0,0,1587049555,0,0,0),(51,55,'Brodmann Areas','',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,0,0,0,1587052242,0,0,0),(52,55,'Neurophysiology Of EEG 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Overview','',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,0,0,0,1587457037,0,0,0),(70,55,'An Early History of QEEG Databases (derived from Thatcher, 2004).','',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,0,0,0,1587458263,0,0,0),(71,55,'SKIL','',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,0,0,0,1587459488,0,0,0),(72,55,'Independent Components Analysis','',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,0,0,0,1587459943,0,0,0),(73,55,'References','',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,0,0,0,1587461400,0,0,0),(74,4,'1) The Central Nervous System','<p></p><h2><a>The Central Nervous System (CNS)</a></h2><p>The central nervous system includes the brain (contained within the skull), which weighs 1.3–1.4 kg in humans, and also the spinal cord, which extends into the vertebral canal. The brain is grossly divided into the brainstem, cerebellum, and cerebrum. The cerebrum is further divided into the basal ganglia, limbic system, and neocortex.</p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/CNS.jpg\" alt=\"Central Nervous System\" width=\"424\" height=\"839\"><p></p><p></p><p><i>Figure 2a: The major components of the Central Nervous System</i></p><p></p><h2><a></a><a>Spinal cord</a></h2><p>The spinal cord descends from the brainstem down through the shielded tunnel of the vertebrae,&nbsp; and transmits information from the body to the brain and from the brain to the body. Thus, the central nervous system is composed of nerves the are rooted to both the surface of the brain, as well as to the spinal cord. Most nerves are peripheral nerves, which extend and branch toward the surface of the body.</p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Spinal%20Cord.jpg\" alt=\"Spinal Cord Anatomy\" width=\"372\" height=\"471\"><p></p><p><i>Figure 2b: Anatomy of the Spinal Cord</i></p><p><i><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Peripheral%20Nervous%20System.jpg\" alt=\"Peripheral Nervous System\" width=\"723\" height=\"917\"><br></i></p><div>\r\n\r\n<p>The brain grows, layer upon layer, like an onion. Brain cells generating grab onto a guide wire,\r\nwhich is a glial\r\nfiber, a glial highway, with the nucleus\r\nin the back. No other kind&nbsp;<span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">of cell has to do this. Neurons travel in waves,\r\nwhich scientists call migration.\r\n&nbsp;In terms of the distances relative to their size, they are making an odyssey, without &nbsp;mistakes telling\r\nthem where to go in the brain.</span></p><p>of cell has to do this. Neurons travel in waves,\r\nwhich scientists call migration.\r\n&nbsp;In terms of the distances relative to their size, they are making an odyssey, without &nbsp;mistakes telling\r\nthem where to go in the brain.</p><p>Here is a cool video made by the Pasterkamp lab, outlining the signaling events and molecular mechanisms involved in the formation of neuronal connections during development.<br></p><p>&nbsp;<video controls=\"true\"><source src=\"<iframe width=&quot;560&quot; height=&quot;315&quot; src=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/embed/ZWACm6BkDVo&quot; frameborder=&quot;0&quot; allow=&quot;accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture&quot; allowfullscreen></iframe>\">&lt;iframe width=\"560\" height=\"315\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/ZWACm6BkDVo\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen&gt;&lt;/iframe&gt;</video>&nbsp;<br></p><p></p><h2>The Triune Brain Theory</h2><br><p></p><p></p><p>The triune brain\r\nwas first described by Maclean in 1990, as consisting of three layers that depict\r\nour evolution individually as a species. &nbsp;The first layer is the reptilian\r\nbrain (its core), responsible for activation, arousal,\r\nhomeostasis, and reproductive drives. This is the dinosaur brain, the same brain that has been around for 2,000,000\r\nyears. The reticular formation at\r\nthe conjunction &nbsp;of the thalamus and the brainstem oscillates at 2Hz (delta) {Thatcher, 2015). At&nbsp;<span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">birth, this structure &nbsp;is already\r\nin place and fully functional.</span></p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/triune%20brain.jpg\" alt=\"Triune Brain\" width=\"790\" height=\"514\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br><p></p><p></p><p>The reptilian\r\nbrain controls the body’s most basic, involuntary actions, like heartbeat,\r\nbreathing, body temperature regulation, and balance. It consists of the\r\nbrainstem and the cerebellum (which joins the limbic thalamus by the reticular\r\nactivating system). The cerebellum is the most densely packed area;\r\nsurprisingly, this is where 80% of the brain’s neurons live (Herculano-Houzel,\r\n2010). Used mostly for gross movements and balance, parts of the cerebellum are\r\ninvolved in the coordination of language, memory, and&nbsp;<span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">reasoning (Schmahmann, 1997). Interestingly, new literature\r\nsuggests that the cerebellum plays a significant role in regulating the\r\ncerebrum, both via white matter (sub-cortically) and via grey&nbsp;</span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">matter (cortically) (Schmahmann, 1997, 1998, 2000; Teicher,\r\nAnderson, &amp; Polcari, 2012). This is the part of the brain that is cradled\r\nby the hand of a loving mother, and the part of the brain that also\r\nunconsciously senses the absence of her hand, in situations of neglect (Fisher,\r\n2014, p. 23).</span></p>\r\n\r\n<p><br></p><h2><a name=\"_Toc28940388\"></a><a name=\"_Toc3535195\">Brainstem</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p>The brainstem is\r\nresponsible for carrying all information from the body to the cerebrum and\r\ncerebellum (hindbrain) and from the brain to the body. The pathways ascending\r\nfrom the body to the brain are the sensory pathways and communicate to your\r\nbrain that which is going on with the body (pain, hunger, desires, temperature,\r\nsensations, etc). The descending pathways move from the brain to the body. The\r\nlast job of the brain stem is its regulation of various systems, such as your\r\ncardiovascular system, respiratory system, pain sensitivity controls, as well\r\nas alertness, and consciousness.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>The brainstem plays a\r\nprimary role in conduit functions. That is, all information related from the\r\nbody to the cerebrum and cerebellum and vice versa, must traverse the brain\r\nstem. The ascending pathways coming from the body to the brain are the sensory\r\npathways. Descending tracts are upper motor neurons destined to synapses on\r\nlower motor neurons. The brain stem also has integrative functions. It is\r\ninvolved in cardiovascular system control, respiratory control, pain\r\nsensitivity control, alertness, and consciousness.</p>Here is a short video on the anatomy of the brainstem.<p></p><p>&nbsp;<video controls=\"true\"><source src=\"<iframe width=&quot;560&quot; height=&quot;315&quot; src=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/embed/T2zjlB4ctu4&quot; frameborder=&quot;0&quot; allow=&quot;accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture&quot; allowfullscreen></iframe>\">&lt;iframe width=\"560\" height=\"315\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/T2zjlB4ctu4\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen&gt;&lt;/iframe&gt;</video>&nbsp;<br></p><p></p><h2><a name=\"_Toc28940390\">THE LIMBIC SYSTEM</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p>After the reptilian brain is formed,\r\nthe next layer,\r\nthe paleomammalian &nbsp;brain, better known as the limbic system,\r\nis primed and ready to be further &nbsp;developed by early life experiences. This area is largely\r\nresponsible for the functions&nbsp; of memory, learning,\r\nand emotion. This second layer is responsible for basic autonomic\r\nfunctioning, as well as reflexes, and basic\r\nsurvival (DeRidder, 2014).\r\nThe proliferation of the limbic system created higher\r\nfrequencies, such as theta and alpha. The limbic\r\nstructures include the amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus, basal\r\nganglia, and cingulate\r\ngyrus. These limbic\r\nstructures are wrapped\r\nin the cerebral cortex, which is the outermost\r\n&nbsp;and third &nbsp;layer\r\nof the brain.</p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Limbic%20System.png\" alt=\"Limbic System\" width=\"258\" height=\"179\" class=\"atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></p>\r\n\r\n<p>From an\r\nevolutionary perspective, the reptilian brain is fully functional at birth and\r\nthe second layer—the limbic system—is prepared for the organizational\r\nexperiences of early life. The neuronal development of the brain’s first and\r\nsecond layers are virtually complete at birth; the branching of dendrites that\r\noccurs thereafter is dubbed “wiring,” since the growth of neurons and dendrites\r\nresembles wires (Seung, 2012). The wiring and creation of oligodendrocytes\r\n(glia cells </p>\r\n\r\n<p><br>\r\nresponsible for myelination) now occurs from the limbic structures into the\r\ncortex. The self-reliance of the brain circuits has increased as we have\r\nevolved, and have moved to higher levels in the brain, ones that have less and\r\nless contact with sensory inputs.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>Most of our\r\nsignificant early emotional and intellectual experiences, those that shape our\r\nlater perceptions and reactions, occur when the limbic and reptilian structures\r\nare in dominance (Cozolino, 2002, p. 9). That is to say, many of our\r\nsocial-emotional reactions and behaviors are literally programmed beneath the\r\nsurface of our consciousness. Indeed, empirical evidence suggests that\r\nprocessing emotion can occur without conscious awareness (Balconi &amp;\r\nLucchiari, 2008; Bunce, Bernat, Wong, &amp; Shevrin, 1999; LeDoux, 1998a). </p>\r\n\r\n<p>&nbsp;</p><h3><a name=\"_Toc28940391\">Neuroanatomy of the Limbic System</a></h3><p><b style=\"color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem; font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;, sans-serif;\">&nbsp;</b><span style=\"color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem; font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;, sans-serif;\">The amygdala is located\r\nwithin the temporal</span>&nbsp;lobes. It is essential to the experience of fear responses and its primary\r\nfunction is arousal.\r\nThis complex structure &nbsp;controls the autonomic responses associated with fear; emotional responses\r\n{i.e. rage and anger) and Hormonal\r\nSecretions. The right-side amygdala is devoted\r\nto survival and reacts to threats, both real and perceived. The amygdala is an\r\nalmond shaped mass of nuclei located deep within the temporal lobes, medial to the hypothalamus and adjacent to the hippocampus. This area of the brain is\r\nprone to kindling, which is essentially repetitive &nbsp;neuronal firing\r\nthat gives rise to high\r\namplitudes, until the pattern collapses. Each kindling lowers\r\nthe threshold of the future\r\nones, making them more likely.</p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/amygdala.png\" alt=\"amygdala\" width=\"456\" height=\"585\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\">Check out this video of the Amygdala:<br><p></p><p>&nbsp;<video controls=\"true\"><source src=\"<iframe width=&quot;560&quot; height=&quot;315&quot; src=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/embed/JVvMSwsOXPw&quot; frameborder=&quot;0&quot; allow=&quot;accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture&quot; allowfullscreen></iframe>\">&lt;iframe width=\"560\" height=\"315\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/JVvMSwsOXPw\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen&gt;&lt;/iframe&gt;</video>&nbsp;<br></p><p></p><h3><br></h3>\r\n\r\n<h4>Basal Ganglia</h4>\r\n\r\n<p>The Basal Ganglia are collections of nerve cells deep within\r\nthe brain. Most of the basal ganglia are concerned with movement, though parts are devoted to language, thought, motivation &nbsp;and emotion. They include the caudate nucleus,\r\nthe putamen, the thalamus, the globus pallidus,\r\nand the tail of the caudate nucleus.</p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Basal%20Ganglia.png\" alt=\"Basal Ganglia\" width=\"574\" height=\"402\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></p><div>\r\n\r\n<h4>Diencephalon</h4><p>This is the division\r\nof the forebrain, the forward &nbsp;most\r\nportion &nbsp;of the brain in vertebrates, which controls temperature, reproductive functions, eating, sleeping, and the display\r\nof emotions. The diencephalon includes\r\nthe thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior portion of\r\nthe pituitary &nbsp;gland and the pineal gland. The third\r\nventricle is enclosed\r\nby the diencephalon.<span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;</span></p><p><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/diencephalon.jpg\" alt=\"diencephalon\" width=\"500\" height=\"376\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></span></p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Hypothalamus</h4><p>The hypothalamus links the nervous\r\nsystem to the endocrine system via the pituitary\r\n&nbsp;gland (hypophysis). The hypothalamus controls\r\nbody temperature, hunger, thirst, fatigue, anger, and circadian\r\ncycles. The hypothalamus is located below the thalamus,\r\njust above the brain stem. The hypothalamus is responsible for certain metabolic processes and other activities of the autonomic nervous system. It synthesizes and secretes neurohormones, often\r\ncalled hypothalamic-releasing &nbsp;hormones, and these in turn stimulate or inhibit the secretion of pituitary\r\n&nbsp;hormones.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>&nbsp;<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/hypothtrlamus.jpg\" alt=\"hypothalamus\" width=\"600\" height=\"300\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"></p><p>For your viewing pleasure, a short video on the hypothalamus:</p><p>&nbsp;<video controls=\"true\"><source src=\"<iframe width=&quot;560&quot; height=&quot;315&quot; src=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/embed/TVhm2rBGhB0&quot; frameborder=&quot;0&quot; allow=&quot;accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture&quot; allowfullscreen></iframe>\">&lt;iframe width=\"560\" height=\"315\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/TVhm2rBGhB0\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen&gt;&lt;/iframe&gt;</video>&nbsp;<br></p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Hippocampus&nbsp;</h4><p>&nbsp;The hippocampus is a part of the forebrain, located\r\nin the medial temporal lobe. It belongs to the limbic system and plays major roles in short term memory\r\nand spatial navigation.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>&nbsp;Here\'s a video on the hippocampus:&nbsp;&nbsp;<video controls=\"true\"><source src=\"<iframe width=&quot;560&quot; height=&quot;315&quot; src=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/embed/5EyaGR8GGhs&quot; frameborder=&quot;0&quot; allow=&quot;accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture&quot; allowfullscreen></iframe>\">&lt;iframe width=\"560\" height=\"315\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/5EyaGR8GGhs\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen&gt;&lt;/iframe&gt;</video>&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Pituitary</h4><p>The &nbsp;pituitary is a small pea-size master gland of the endocrine\r\n&nbsp;system that sits in a\r\nbony depression beneath\r\nthe hypothalamus. Its job deals with directing chemical changes to regulate\r\nthe entire organic\r\nsystem.</p><p>Here is a short video on the pituitary and the hypothalamus</p><p>&nbsp;<video controls=\"true\"><source src=\"<iframe width=&quot;560&quot; height=&quot;315&quot; src=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/embed/TVhm2rBGhB0&quot; frameborder=&quot;0&quot; allow=&quot;accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture&quot; allowfullscreen></iframe>\">&lt;iframe width=\"560\" height=\"315\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/TVhm2rBGhB0\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen&gt;&lt;/iframe&gt;</video>&nbsp;<br></p>\r\n\r\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Reticular\r\nformation</h4><p>The reticular &nbsp;formation (also known as the reticular activating system) is at the core of the brainstem\r\n&nbsp;and plays a\r\nvital role in sleep, emotion, breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate.&nbsp;<span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">The reticular formation oscillates at 2 hz and is the dinosaur\r\nbrain, roughly </span><i style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">2,000,000 </i><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">years old in its evolutionary trajectory,\r\nis the same structure &nbsp;that we have.</span></p><p><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/RAS.jpg\" alt=\"RAS\" width=\"600\" height=\"600\" class=\"atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></span></p></div>\r\n\r\n<h4>Thalamus</h4><p>The thalamus\r\nis an egg-shaped structure &nbsp;deep within the brain that acts as a relay station, receiving information from all senses (except\r\nolfactory) &nbsp;processing the data and passing it between the spinal <i>cord,</i><i> </i>the medulla oblongata and the cerebral\r\ncortex. It relays sensory signals like motor &nbsp;signals to the <i>cortex, </i>and it also plays in the regulation of\r\nsleep and arousal states. It is the beginning of the brain\'s\r\nformation at 5 weeks in utero.</p><p><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">The thalamus is composed of the thalamic nuclei, which aids in the processing of various stimuli. Here is a general video of the thalamus:</span></p><p><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;<video controls=\"true\"><source src=\"<iframe width=&quot;560&quot; height=&quot;315&quot; src=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/embed/IF8_82e9RmQ&quot; frameborder=&quot;0&quot; allow=&quot;accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture&quot; allowfullscreen></iframe>\">&lt;iframe width=\"560\" height=\"315\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/IF8_82e9RmQ\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen&gt;&lt;/iframe&gt;</video>&nbsp;<br></span></p><p>And here is a video on the specificities of the various parts of the thalamic nuclei:</p><p>&nbsp;<video controls=\"true\"><source src=\"<iframe width=&quot;560&quot; height=&quot;315&quot; src=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/embed/H-oCTE41Evg&quot; frameborder=&quot;0&quot; allow=&quot;accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture&quot; allowfullscreen></iframe>\">&lt;iframe width=\"560\" height=\"315\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/H-oCTE41Evg\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen&gt;&lt;/iframe&gt;</video>&nbsp;<br></p><p>Here is a general video of the Basal Ganglia</p><p>&nbsp;<video controls=\"true\"><source src=\"<iframe width=&quot;560&quot; height=&quot;315&quot; src=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/embed/OD2KPSGZ1No&quot; frameborder=&quot;0&quot; allow=&quot;accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture&quot; allowfullscreen></iframe>\">&lt;iframe width=\"560\" height=\"315\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/OD2KPSGZ1No\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen&gt;&lt;/iframe&gt;</video>&nbsp;<br></p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Caudate Nucleus</h4><p>The caudate nucleus is one of the structures that makes up\r\nthe dorsal striatum of the basal ganglia. This part of the brain&nbsp;plays\r\nimportant roles in various other nonmotor functions as well, including&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural_learning\" title=\"Procedural learning\">procedural learning</a>, <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associative_learning\" title=\"Associative learning\">associative learning</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inhibitory_control\" title=\"Inhibitory control\">inhibitory control</a>&nbsp;of action, &nbsp;among\r\nother functions. The caudate is also one of the brain structures which compose\r\nthe&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reward_system\" title=\"Reward system\">reward system</a>&nbsp;and functions as part of\r\nthe&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex\" title=\"Prefrontal cortex\">cortico</a>–<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basal_ganglia\" title=\"Basal ganglia\">basal ganglia</a>–<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thalamus\" title=\"Thalamus\">thalamic</a>&nbsp;loop.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>And here is a little video of the Caudate Nucleus (It\'s a little funky, but helps explain anatomy):</p><p>&nbsp;<video controls=\"true\"><source src=\"<iframe width=&quot;560&quot; height=&quot;315&quot; src=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/embed/GcB5_gXka2g&quot; frameborder=&quot;0&quot; allow=&quot;accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture&quot; allowfullscreen></iframe>\">&lt;iframe width=\"560\" height=\"315\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/GcB5_gXka2g\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen&gt;&lt;/iframe&gt;</video>&nbsp;<br></p>\r\n\r\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<h4><a name=\"_Toc525053947\">Parahippocampal Gyrus</a></h4><p><a name=\"_Hlk525136529\">The parahippocampal gyrus is a region which is responsible for\r\nmany functions, most notably for short-term working memory. The left-hand side\r\nis related to more verbal processes than the right, the right hand side has\r\nmore to do with forming associations. This area of the brain has much to do\r\nwith the encoding and recognition of scenes; this area of the brain becomes\r\nactive when taking in topographical scenes (images of cities, landscapes, and\r\nrooms—images of places).&nbsp; Furthermore,\r\nthis area is involved in procedural memory consolidation, recognition, and\r\nrecall. It is a component part of the networks for autobiographical memory,\r\nembarrassment, and regret.</a> </p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Parahippocampal%20gyrus.jpg\" alt=\"PArahippocampal gyrus\" width=\"1600\" height=\"1131\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br><p></p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/parahippocampal%20gyrus.png\" alt=\"parahippocampal gyrus\" width=\"1077\" height=\"1239\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></p><h4>Tiff Thompson\'s Depth Theory of Neuroanatomy</h4><p></p><p>Proponents of\r\nthe collective unconscious theory in neuroscience have suggested that neurobiological\r\ncorrelates to the collective unconscious are the subcortical areas of the\r\nbrain, specifically the thalamus (which oscillates in delta, theta, and alpha\r\nrhythms). The thalamus operates like a regulatory gateway, since all of the\r\nsensory input that comes into the brain, and all motor output, goes through the\r\nthalamus. The thalamus regulates what goes in and what goes out.&nbsp; Because these structures are located centrally,\r\nlinking the brain with the rest of the nervous system, they are said to control\r\nvital processes, such as emotions and long-term memory (Hunt, 2012). Arousal\r\noccurs in the face of a threat, triggered by the amygdala, which is an almond\r\nshaped structure in the brain responsible for mediating the fear response. The\r\namygdala locks down the hippocampus so as to react by shutting down this\r\nstructure, the seat of the memory (LeDoux, 1998b). LeDoux speculates, however,\r\nthat psychoanalysis works by strengthening the cortical control of the\r\namygdala. In fact, the face-to face reciprocity between infant and mother is\r\ncrucial for the development of the pre-frontal cortex, which serves to mediate\r\nthe amygdala and regulate affect (Schore, 1994, 2003; Siegel, 1999; Stern,\r\n2013; Tronick, 2007).</p>\r\n\r\n<p>Sigmund Freud, quite rightly, believed\r\nthat mental activity\r\nwas rooted in phylogenically­ old emotion &nbsp;and motivation\r\n&nbsp;systems, which\r\nwere constructed&nbsp; in early mental development, and instantiated throughout later adult life (LeDoux, 1998a;Panskepp, 1998). Thus, affective reactivity, such as dissociation, can be seen as a return\r\n&nbsp;to nonverbal, largely unconscious parts of the brain. These are areas that can influence the higher-ordered new-mammalian brain\r\n(Cozolino, 2002, p. 6). Furthermore, these older regions are innervated\r\n&nbsp;by the vagus nerve,\r\nwhich literally means \"wandering nerve.\" The vagus nerve is also called the \"wandering nerve\" because it\'s the longest\r\nnerve in the human body and has countless branches\r\nthat wind their\r\nway from the brainstem all the way down to the lowest\r\npart of the intestines, touching\r\nmost major organs along the way. The vagus nerve is the tenth\r\n&nbsp;cranial nerve and is the main afferent pathway connecting the gut to the brain. This nerve modulates the parasympathetic nervous system, which counterbalances the fight, flight,&nbsp;<span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">or freeze stress response\r\nby eliciting the so­\r\ncalled \"relaxation &nbsp;response.\"</span></p><h4><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">The Vagus Nerve</span></h4>\r\n\r\n<p>&nbsp;<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Vagus%20Nerve.jpg\" alt=\"Vagus Nerve\" width=\"500\" height=\"1859\" class=\"atto_image_button_text-bottom\">A study released in June of 2015 noted the\r\ndiscovery of vessels directly connecting the brain\r\nand the lymphatic system, a finding which will likely\r\nhave continual substantial implications for major neurological diseases and also more common &nbsp;psychopathologies (Louveau\r\net al., 2015). This finding changes\r\nthe way scientists\r\nperceive neuro-immune interaction, and may make the link between the body and the brain/mind something beyond esotericism.</p><br><p></p><p></p></div><p></p>',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,1,0,0,1593010964,0,0,0),(75,4,'2) The Neo Mammilian Brain: The Cortex','<p><p>The cortex is\r\nthe neomammalian brain, which is the grey matter. The cortex is the bark of the\r\nbrain, “cortex” literally translating to bark in Latin. This part of the brain\r\ncontinues to develop and mature into the third decade of life, creating our\r\nlearned social-emotional behaviors, and emotions. Higher-level primates\r\n(including humans) oscillate at faster frequencies here. This layer of the\r\nbrain is responsible for all conscious thought, learning, and self-awareness\r\n(MacLean, 1990). Approximately 40,000 years ago, with the Cro-Magnon man, both\r\nhemispheres of the brain underwent a major functional reorganization. It was at\r\nthis time that the frontal lobes increased in size, bonding processes (sexual\r\nand social) became more complex, and the ability to communicate and express\r\nideas began to emerge, notably in drawings, etchings, carvings, and sculpture\r\n(Joseph, 1992, p. 25). It is this third layer of the cortex that allows for\r\nself-conscious awareness, among other qualities (Professor H. LaFace, personal\r\ncommunication, January 25, 2013).</p>\r\n\r\n<p>In a cortical\r\norganization, neurons are arranged in layers and the neurons in each layer are\r\nfunctionally alike and different from those in other layers. The crinkled sheet\r\nof nerve cells (grey matter) that is the cortex is 1/5” thick.&nbsp; This is the house of the highest level of\r\nneural processing (e.g. language, memory, cognitive functioning). The cerebral\r\ncortex can be divided into areas concerned with particular functions. What lies\r\nunderneath the cortex is considered white matter.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>Cortical\r\ninterneurons make up 1/5 of the cortical neuronal population (65) and release\r\nthe inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid). Although they\r\nare outnumbered, interneurons innervate principle neurons at strategic places\r\nand with synaptic terminals, which allows for Inhibitory Post Synaptic\r\nPotentials (IPSPs)&nbsp; to approximately\r\nmatch the effects of excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs). It is through\r\nthis dance that the balance of cortical activity is established.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>Brain systems\r\nwith “simple” computational demands evolved only a few neuron types. The\r\nthalamus, basal ganglia, and cerebellum possess a low degree of variability in\r\ntheir neuron types. In contrast, cortical structures have evolved not only five\r\nprinciple-cell types, but also numerous classes of GABAergic inhibitory neurons\r\n(Buszaki, 2006).</p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/evolution.png\" alt=\"Evolution\" width=\"663\" height=\"391\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></p>',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,1,0,0,1593010970,0,0,0),(76,4,'3) The Cortex','<p></p><p>As previously\r\nmentioned, the cortex is composed of six layers of neurons, called the\r\npyramidal neurons. The pre-frontal cortex is involved in working memory, the\r\nplanning of complex behaviors, and coordination of thought in relation to goals\r\nand decision-making (Gorochowski, 2009). This area of the brain is responsible\r\nfor higher-ordered tasks, such as thinking, planning, motor execution, and mood\r\ncontrol (Thatcher, 2015). With the evolution of the cerebral cortex, our early\r\nancestors (Cro-Magnon man), once a free-roaming and wild species wholly reliable\r\nupon instincts, found themselves with higher cognitive thought, which upturned\r\nthe previous reliance on unconscious drives and desires. With this outward\r\ngrowth of their brains, they were forced to think, deduce, </p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/PRE%20FRONTAL%20CORTEx.png\" alt=\"Pre Frontal Cortex\" width=\"834\" height=\"338\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br><p></p><p></p><h3><a name=\"_Toc28940403\">Figure xx: Components of the Pre-Frontal Cortex</a></h3><p></p><p><br></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940402\"></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940402\">One\r\ninteresting component of neurophysiology that has been discovered is that our\r\nprefrontal cortex can simulate the future (Byrne &amp; Reiner, 2006). This has\r\nbeen most popularly described in the case of Olympian athletes (Byrne &amp;\r\nReiner, 2006). It has been proven that the same portions of the brain fire when\r\nthese individuals complete their event in their mind as does when they are\r\nactually competing in the event. Taking the internal perspective triggers the\r\nsomatosensory perspective (Casey &amp; Romanyshyn, 2010). In interviewing\r\ngymnasts, many of those who have qualified for the Olympics speak of using\r\ninternal imagery—that is, they saw themselves inside their minds conducting\r\ntheir gymnastic feats, whereas those who did not qualify for the Olympics\r\ncommonly used external imagery; they watched video tapes more and relied on\r\nobserving others (Byrne &amp; Reiner, 2006). </a></p><h2><a name=\"_Toc28940404\">Meninges</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p>The three membranes of elastic connective tissues that envelop the\r\nbrain and the spinal cord are called meninges. The three layers are:</p>\r\n\r\n<p><a name=\"_Toc28940405\">Dura Mater</a> – the\r\noutermost and toughest layer of the meninges</p>\r\n\r\n<p><a name=\"_Toc28940406\">Arachnoid Mater</a> – The\r\nweb-like middle layer of the meninges</p>\r\n\r\n<p><a name=\"_Toc28940407\">Pia Mater</a> – The\r\ninnermost layer of the meninges</p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/MENINGES.png\" alt=\"Meninges\" width=\"820\" height=\"566\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/meninges2.png\" alt=\"meninges\" width=\"999\" height=\"623\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></p>\r\n\r\n<p>The purpose of the meninges is to protect the brain and support\r\nits structure, including anchoring the brain and the brain stem to the skull.\r\nThey also contain <a href=\"http://www.neuroscientificallychallenged.com/glossary/cerebrospinal-fluid\" target=\"_blank\">cerebrospinal\r\nfluid (CSF)</a>, which acts as a cushion for the brain and provides a solution in\r\nwhich the brain is suspended, allowing it to preserve its shape.</p><p></p><p>Meningitis is inflammation of the meninges and spinal cord\r\nmembranes, often caused by an infection.</p><p></p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/mENINGES.png\" alt=\"mENINGITIS\" width=\"452\" height=\"255\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br><p></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940402\"></a></p><h3><a name=\"_Toc28940409\">Figure xx: The actions of meningitis</a></h3><br><p></p><p></p>',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,1,0,0,1595825764,0,0,0),(77,4,'4) The Lobes of the Brain','<p><p>The basic division of each of the hemispheres is into four lobes:\r\nfrontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital. Two prominent ﬁssures allow this\r\nsubdivision to be made — the central ﬁssure and the lateral ﬁssure.</p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Lobes.png\" alt=\"Lobes\" width=\"557\" height=\"368\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></p><p><h2><a name=\"_Toc28940412\">Pre-Frontal Cortex</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p>&nbsp;The prefrontal cortex <a href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10559553\" target=\"_blank\">makes up over\r\n10% of the volume of the brain</a>, The PFC contains the&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brodmann_area\" title=\"Brodmann area\">Brodmann areas 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 24, 25, 44, 46 and 47. </a><sup>&nbsp;</sup>This brain\r\nregion has been implicated in&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planning\" title=\"Planning\">planning complex cognitive behavior</a>, personality expression,&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_making\" title=\"Decision making\">decision making</a>, moderating\r\nsocial behavior, and <img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/PFC.png\" alt=\"PFC\" width=\"306\" height=\"242\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\">moderating certain aspects of speech and\r\nlanguage.&nbsp;The basic activity of this brain region is considered to be orchestration\r\nof thoughts and actions in accordance with internal goals.<sup> </sup>The most\r\ntypical&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology\" title=\"Psychology\">psychological</a>&nbsp;term for functions carried out by the prefrontal cortex\r\narea is&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_system\" title=\"Executive system\">executive function</a>. Executive function relates to\r\nabilities to differentiate among conflicting thoughts, determine good and bad,\r\nbetter and best, same and different, future consequences of current activities,\r\nworking toward a defined goal, prediction of outcomes, expectation based on\r\nactions, and social \"control\" (the ability to suppress urges that, if\r\nnot suppressed, could lead to socially unacceptable outcomes). Patients with\r\nprefrontal cortex damage can experience blunted emotional responses, which may\r\nbe another factor that negatively affects their ability to make decisions.</p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Frontal%20Lobes.png\" alt=\"Frontal Lobes\" width=\"500\" height=\"425\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></p><p>Frontal lobes have the ability to regulate eye movement this is\r\nvisual accommodation and convergence, the ability of the eyes to go left and\r\nright and focus and read.&nbsp; There is a\r\nphysiological problem with ADD/ADHD kids—they have more difficulty keeping\r\ntheir eyes still. </p><h3><a name=\"_Toc28940413\">Dorso-Lateral Pre-Frontal Cortex</a></h3>\r\n\r\n<p>Between\r\nBrodmann areas 9, 10, 44 and 45 is the Dorso-Lateral Pre-Frontal Cortex\r\n(DLPFC).<a name=\"_Hlk494097976\"> This area </a><a name=\"_Hlk520354468\">is the highest cortical area responsible for\r\nmotor planning, organization and regulation. It has an important role in the\r\nintegration of sensory and mnemonic information.</a></p><p><a name=\"_Hlk520354468\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/DLPFC.jpg\" alt=\"DLPFC\" width=\"400\" height=\"372\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></a></p>\r\n\r\n<p>This area has cortical (surface)\r\nand sub cortical (under the surface—white matter) circuits for complex mental\r\nactivity and executive functions. It plays a large role in executive memory\r\n(working memory, spatial memory, and short term memory), memory retrieval and\r\nencoding/recognition, as well as prospective memory, abstract thinking,\r\nintentionality and motivation. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>In addition, this area is responsible for error processing and\r\ndetection, processing emotional stimuli, self-reflection in decision making,\r\npleasant and unpleasant emotions, inferential reasoning, decision weighing\r\n(conflict and reward), planning, and attribution of intention to others.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>The sensory\r\nresponsibilities of the dorsolateral pre-frontal cortex have to do with joint\r\nattention and autonomic nervous system regulation. The&nbsp;autonomic nervous system&nbsp;(ANS&nbsp;or&nbsp;visceral nervous system&nbsp;or&nbsp;involuntary nervous system) is the part of the&nbsp;<a href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system\" title=\"Peripheral nervous system\">peripheral nervous system</a>&nbsp;that acts as a&nbsp;<a href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_system\" title=\"Control system\">control system</a>&nbsp;that functions largely below the\r\nlevel of&nbsp;<a href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness\" title=\"Consciousness\">consciousness</a>&nbsp;to control&nbsp;<a href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscera\" title=\"Viscera\">visceral</a>&nbsp;functions,&nbsp;including&nbsp;<a href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart_rate\" title=\"Heart rate\">heart rate</a>,&nbsp;<a href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digestion\" title=\"Digestion\">digestion</a>,&nbsp;<a href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiratory_rate\" title=\"Respiratory rate\">respiratory rate</a>, <a href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salivation\" title=\"Salivation\">salivation</a>,&nbsp;<a href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perspiration\" title=\"Perspiration\">perspiration</a>,&nbsp;<a href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pupillary_dilation\" title=\"Pupillary dilation\">pupillary dilation</a>,&nbsp;<a href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micturition\" title=\"Micturition\">micturition</a>&nbsp;(urination),&nbsp;<a href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_arousal\" title=\"Sexual arousal\">sexual arousal</a>,&nbsp;<a href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breathing\" title=\"Breathing\">breathing</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swallowing\" title=\"Swallowing\">swallowing</a>. Most\r\nautonomous functions are involuntary but they can often work in conjunction\r\nwith the&nbsp;<a href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatic_nervous_system\" title=\"Somatic nervous system\">somatic nervous system</a>&nbsp;which provides voluntary control.</p><h2><a name=\"_Toc28940414\">Sensory motor Cortex</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p>The sensory motor cortex registers sensation that is connected\r\nwith specific body parts or body functions. The motor strip is part of the\r\nfrontal lobe and is anterior to the sensory cortex, which is in the parietal\r\nlobe. Collectively, the sensory motor cortex forms the central lobes of the brain.\r\nThe primary motor cortex is Brodmann area 4, which works with other motor areas\r\nof the brain to plan and execute movements. The primary motor cortex receives\r\nthalamic inputs from different cell bodies within the thalamus. The nerve\r\nfibers that cast somatosensory information all over the body. &nbsp;The sensory motor cortex is made up of\r\nBrodmann areas 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.</p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/CENTRAL%20LOBE.png\" alt=\"CENTRAL LOBE\" width=\"559\" height=\"425\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></p>',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,1,0,0,1593010982,0,0,0),(78,4,'5) Brodmann Areas','<p></p><h1><a name=\"_Toc28940422\">BRODMANN AREAS</a></h1>\r\n\r\n<p>The initial\r\napproach to understanding what part of the brain controlled what function was\r\nthe legacy of Sir Charles Scott Sherrington (1857 – 1952) who found that different parts of the\r\nbrain have different cellular architecture and control different functions and\r\nsensations. And in 1909, Korbinian Brodmann discovered that different regions\r\nof the brain had different cellular architecture, which he divided into\r\nnumbered areas (today called “Brodmann areas”). &nbsp;He dissected the brain into 52 distinct\r\nregions. The cerebellar cortex is also subdivided into nearly a hundred areas.\r\nCurrently, we know that each of these divisions is composed of characteristic\r\nneuronal circuits that consist of numerous neurons of diverse types\r\ninterconnected with each other via synapses. </p><h4>Figures xx and xx: Sir Charles Scott Sherrington (Left) and Korbinian Brodmann (Right)</h4><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/K%20Brodmann.jpg\" alt=\"K Brodmann\" width=\"318\" height=\"472\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_right\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Sherrington.jpg\" alt=\"Sherrington\" width=\"216\" height=\"287\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><h3><a name=\"_Toc28940423\">Figure xx: Original Cortical Atlas by Brodmann,\r\nColorized Lateral View of the left hemisphere</a></h3><p><a name=\"_Toc28940423\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Brodmann%201.png\" alt=\"Brodmann areas\" width=\"405\" height=\"284\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></a></p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\">Figure xx: The 52 Brodmann areas of the brain</a><br><p></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/brodmann%202.png\" alt=\"brodmann 2\" width=\"621\" height=\"277\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"></a></p><h4><a name=\"_Toc28940424\">Brodmann area functions</a></h4><a name=\"_Toc28940424\">\r\n\r\n<p>8 sub-categories or groupings</p>\r\n\r\n<p>Areas not in humans include: 14, 15, 27\r\nand 49</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->1)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->executive functioning (9, 10, 44, 45,\r\n46)</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->2)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->motor (4, 6, 8)</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->3)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->somatosensory (1, 2, 3, 5, 40, 31)</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->4)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->attention (7, 39)</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->5)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->visual (17, 18, 19, 15, 16)</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->6)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->memory (20, 21, 37, 28, 36)</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->7)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Emotional regulation (11, 38, 47, 13)</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->8)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Sound (22, 41, 42)</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->9)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Primary Gustatory Area (43) Olfactory (34)</p>\r\n\r\n<p>&nbsp;</p></a><h4><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"></a><a name=\"_Toc28940425\">Bas 3, 1,and 2</a></h4><p><a name=\"_Toc28940425\"></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940425\">This region is the primary somatosensotry cortex and is located at\r\nthe post central gyrus of the brain (behind the Rolandic Fissure). It is\r\ndivided into Brodmann areas 1, 2, 3a, and 3b. 3b is thought to be the primary\r\nsomato-sensory cortex, and projects the outputs received from 3a to Brodmann\r\nareas 1 and 2. BA 3 mediates bodily sensations, because its wired to pathways\r\nbringing touch, pain, and temperature signals from the spinal cord, BA1 gets\r\ninformation on texture and Brodmann area 2 gets information on the size and the\r\nshape of an object. COOL!!</a></p><p></p><p>Figures xx and xx: Brodmann areas 1, 2, and 3</p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA%20123.png\" alt=\"BA 123\" width=\"271\" height=\"254\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br><p></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA123.png\" alt=\"BA 123\" width=\"625\" height=\"464\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\">BA 4</a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\">Brodmann area\r\n4 is the primary motor cortex of the brain and is located at the pre central\r\nsulcus.&nbsp; It is considered the most\r\nposterior part of the frontal lobe. BA 4 controls movements of the body and\r\nsends many axons to the spinal cord, which in turn is wired to the muscles of\r\nthe body.</a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA%204.png\" alt=\"BA 4\" width=\"487\" height=\"747\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_right\"><br></a></p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\">\r\n\r\nThis\r\nregion is the region of the motor homunculus, which is mainly involved in\r\ncontrolling voluntary dynamic, kinesthetic movements. It is responsible for\r\nmotor (finger, hand wrist, lip tongue, face, mouth, and lower limb movement, as\r\nwell as eye movements and blinking and learning motor sequences. This area is\r\nalso responsible for somatosensory perception, such as finger moving and touch\r\n, and kinesthetic perception of limb movements. This region as the main motor center of the brain,\r\ninitiates the onset of movements, mainly produced by contraction of skeletal muscle.\r\nThese impulses pass via the internal capsule to the spinothalamic tract in the\r\nspinal cord, both parts of the pyramidal system.&nbsp;<br>\r\n<!--[if !supportLineBreakNewLine]--><br>\r\n<!--[endif]--><br></a><p></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"></a></p><h2><a name=\"_Toc28940427\">BA 5</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p>Brodmann area\r\n5 is part of the parietal cortex, making up the superior parietal lobe as part\r\nof the post central gyrus. It is right behind Brodmann areas 1, 2, and 3, the\r\nprimary somatosensory cortex. This\r\narea is involved with spatial orientation, and receives a great deal of visual\r\ninput as well as sensory input from one\'s hand. The postcentral gyrus is the principal somatic (of the body)\r\nsensory area. It is the end-point of sensory information from the skin (for\r\ntouch, pain, pressure and temperature sensation) and from the spindle organs in\r\nthe joints (for position sense).&nbsp;</p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA5.png\" alt=\"BA5\" width=\"595\" height=\"949\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></p>\r\n\r\n<p>Comprehensively, this area is responsible for generating actions,\r\nmoving hands, moving limbs, sensing of our fingers, experiencing softness and\r\nvibration, moving tongue and mouth, swallowing, voluntary breathing, imagining\r\nactions, blinking and eye movements, the mirror neuron system, and verbal\r\nencoding. The slow Beta rhythm of 13-14 hz was once used in neurofeedback\r\ntraining as a means of reducing seizure and adding calm to patients otherwise\r\nstricken with anxiety. The lack of this particular bandwidth in this region\r\nsuggests a lack of proprioceptive awareness and potentially a more anxious\r\nstate.</p><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><h2><a name=\"_Toc28940428\">BA 6</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p>BA 6 are part of the frontal lobe\r\nand lies anterior to the motor cortex (Brodmann area 4). The functions of\r\nBrodmann area 6 are the premotor cortex are diverse and project directly to\r\nthe&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinal_cord\" title=\"Spinal cord\">spinal cord</a>.&nbsp;This region therefore may play a\r\nrole in the direct control of behavior, with a relative emphasis on the&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torso\" title=\"Torso\">trunk\r\nmuscles</a>&nbsp;of the body. It may also play\r\na role in planning movement, in the spatial guidance of movement, in the\r\nsensory guidance of movement, in understanding the actions of others, and in\r\nusing abstract rules to perform specific tasks. This area is also responsible for intention. </p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Brodmann%20area%206.png\" alt=\"Brodmann area 6\" width=\"248\" height=\"394\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><h2><a name=\"_Toc28940429\"></a><a name=\"_Toc16242834\"></a><a name=\"_Toc525053908\">BA 7</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p>Brodmann area\r\n7 part of the parietal cortex of the brain and located posterior to the&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_somatosensory_cortex\" title=\"Primary somatosensory cortex\">primary somatosensory cortex</a>&nbsp;(<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postcentral_gyrus\" title=\"Postcentral gyrus\">Brodmann areas 3, 1 and 2</a>), and\r\nsuperior to the&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occipital_lobe\" title=\"Occipital lobe\">occipital lobe</a>. This\r\nregion is believed to play a role in&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visuo-motor_coordination\" title=\"Visuo-motor coordination\">visuo-motor coordination</a>\r\n(e.g. tool use, reaching to grasp an object, handwriting, and visuospatial\r\nattention.&nbsp;(e.g.,\r\nin reaching to grasp an object). In addition, area 7 along with&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brodmann_area_5\" title=\"Brodmann area 5\">area 5</a>&nbsp;has been linked to\r\na wide variety of high-level processing tasks, including activation in\r\nassociation with language use.<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brodmann_area_7#cite_note-2\"><sup>[2]</sup></a>&nbsp;This\r\nfunction in language has been theorized to stem from how these two regions play\r\na vital role in generating&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscious\" title=\"Conscious\">conscious</a>&nbsp;constructs\r\nof objects in the world, including self-reflection.</p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA7.png\" alt=\"Brodmann area 7\" width=\"246\" height=\"395\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></p><h4><a name=\"_Toc28940430\">BA 8</a></h4><h5>Brodmann area 8 is anterior to Brodmann\r\narea 6 and is part of the frontal cortex. It includes the frontal eye fields\r\n(so that if one has a stroke on injury to the brain in this region, the eyes\r\nwill drift towards the injury. It is involved in the management of uncertainty,\r\nas well as the encoding of hope (a higher-order expectation positively\r\ncorrelated with uncertainty).</h5><h2><a name=\"_Toc28940431\"></a><br></h2><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA8.png\" alt=\"BA8\" width=\"249\" height=\"393\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br><h2><a name=\"_Toc525053909\">BA 9 and 10</a></h2><p>Brodmann area 9 located in the pre-frontal cortex is responsible for executive memory, abstract thinking, intentionality and motivation, memory (working memory, spatial memory, short term memory, memory encoding and recognition, memory retrieval, forgetting), motor skills, error detection, inductive reasoning, language skills (verbal fluency, metaphor comprehension, semantic categorization, verbal fluency, word-stem completion, generating sentences, etc). This area is underactive in individuals dealing with bipolar depressive disorders. Left BA9 is responsible for empathy, processing pleasant and unpleasant emotional scenes, self-criticism, and attention to negative emotions.<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA9.png\" alt=\"BA9\" width=\"258\" height=\"400\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-top\"></p><p>Right BA9 is responsible for attention to positive emotions, recognizing the emotions of others, attributing intention, suppressing sadness, theory of mind, working memory and spatial memory, as well as planning, calculation, and religiosity.</p><p><h2><a name=\"_Toc28940432\"></a><a name=\"_Toc16242836\"></a><a name=\"_Toc525053910\">BA 10</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p><a name=\"_Hlk28777532\">Brodmann area\r\n10 is the anterior-most portion of the pre-frontal cortex. Overall, this area\r\nof the brain governs working memory; spatial memory; recognition; recall;\r\nintentional forgetting; recognizing emotions; calculation; pain; organization,\r\nmaintenance, and implementation of intentions, source monitoring (who said what\r\ninformation), logical inference, hypometabolism in bipolar disorder (with\r\nparalimbic, insula, and cingulate hypermetabolism).</a></p>\r\n\r\n<h3><a name=\"_Toc28940433\">Brodmann\r\narea 10L</a></h3>\r\n\r\n<p>Brodmann area\r\n10L is responsible for self-reflection (about one\'s own abilities, traits and\r\nattitudes), Syntax, Metaphor, Lexical processing, Verbs, Self-reflection,\r\nSelf-appraise, Inferences during reading,&nbsp;\r\nForgiveability judgment (of a crime), the integration of disparate\r\nrelationships, dysfunction during remission in major depression, and the execution\r\nof delayed intentions.</p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA10.png\" alt=\"BA10\" width=\"254\" height=\"394\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></p>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n<h3><a name=\"_Toc28940434\">Brodmann area 10 R</a> </h3>\r\n\r\n<p><a name=\"_Hlk28777561\">Brodmann area\r\n10 is responsible for recalling episodes, nonspeech sounds,&nbsp; familiar odors, reward vs conflict, risk vs\r\nbenefit, and carrying out delayed intentions.</a></p><br></p><br><p></p>',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,1,0,0,1593010988,0,0,0),(79,4,'6) The Neurophysiology of EEG Generation','',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,1,0,0,1593010994,0,0,0),(80,5,'Anti-Epileptic and Anti-Convulsant Drugs (AEDs)','<p></p><p>Anti-epileptic drugs (AED) and anti-convulsant drugs are most\r\nprescribed by neurologists for the treatment of seizures and epileptiform\r\ndischarges.</p>\r\n\r\n<h1>Generic AED names with&nbsp;brand names</h1>\r\n\r\n<h4>Carbamazepine&nbsp;also available as&nbsp;Carbagen,&nbsp;Tegretol,&nbsp;Tegretol\r\nProlonged Release</h4>\r\n\r\n<p>Carbamazepine is a favorite partial seizure medicine in the developed world. Carbamazepine affects\r\nsodium channels, and inhibits rapid firing of brain cells. Long-acting forms\r\nsuch as Carbatrol or Tegretol-XR can be given once a day. Potential side\r\neffects include GI upset, weight gain, blurred vision, low blood counts, low\r\nblood sodium (hyponatremia). Carbamazepine causes a rash rate of a few percent,\r\nsometimes even the dangerous rash called Stevens-Johnson syndrome. People of\r\nAsian descent with HLA-B*1502 antigen are more at risk. Typical adult dose is\r\n400 mg tid.&nbsp;</p><p>This is a good choice of AED for slow alpha variants.</p><h3>Figure xx: Image of Tegretol pills and chemical bond</h3><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/carb.jpg\" alt=\"carb\" width=\"300\" height=\"436\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><h4><br></h4><h4>Benzodiazepines and EEG Effects</h4>\r\n\r\n<p>Benzodiazepines produce a spindling, sinusoidal hyper-rhythmic 18-25Hz pattern. They also decrease alpha.&nbsp;<span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">Sometimes this pattern is more pronounced in the front of the head, but the\r\npattern can be seen globally.&nbsp;</span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">Dosing and systemic vascularity of the being will alter the\r\nexpression of how the drug will appear.</span></p><p></p><h4>Figure xx: Image of Benzodiazepine Toxicity in EEG. Image generated from Neuroguide version\r\n3.0.6.</h4><br><p></p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/benzos.png\" alt=\"EEG of Benzos\" width=\"925\" height=\"979\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br><p></p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</p><h3>Figure xx: Image of\r\nBenzodiazepine Toxicity in a Linked Ears Montage. Image generated from\r\nNeuroguide version 3.0.6.</h3><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/benzos%202.png\" alt=\"benzos 2\" width=\"714\" height=\"943\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></p><p></p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p></p><h3>Figure 5: Image of\r\nBenzodiazepine Toxicity in individual Hertz bins (linked ears montage). Image\r\ngenerated from Neuroguide version 3.0.6.</h3><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/benzo3.png\" alt=\"benzo3\" width=\"714\" height=\"361\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></p><br><p></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/benzo4.png\" alt=\"benzo4\" width=\"718\" height=\"360\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><h3>More Anti-Convulstants</h3>\r\n\r\n<h4><a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=%22Gabapentin%22\" target=\"_blank\">Gabapentin</a>&nbsp;also available as&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=neurontin\" target=\"_blank\">Neurontin</a></h4>\r\n\r\n<p><p>This is often used as a secondary\r\nanticonvulsant to boost GABA.&nbsp;<span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">Gabapentin\r\nhas the reputation of being a safe but not particularly powerful AED. The\r\neffectiveness criticism probably is because it is often prescribed at too low a\r\ndose. The drug probably works by influencing transport of GABA and effects on\r\ncalcium channels. It has no drug interactions, is not metabolized in the liver\r\nand it does not bind to blood proteins. Side effects are unsteadiness, weight\r\ngain, fatigue, dizziness. Typical adult dose is 300-600 mg three times a, but\r\ndoses can be up to 1200 mg three times a day.</span></p><h3><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">Figure xx: Image of Neurontin Pills</span></h3></p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/neurontin.jpg\" alt=\"Neurontin\" width=\"531\" height=\"385\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"></p>\r\n\r\n<h4><a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=lacosamide\" target=\"_blank\">Lacosamide</a>&nbsp;available as&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=lacosamide\" target=\"_blank\">Vimpat</a></h4>\r\n\r\n<p>&nbsp;Lacosamide is a new (2009) antiepileptic drug\r\n, for partial and secondarily generalized seizures. It is chemically related to\r\nthe amino acid, serine. Vimpat blocks sodium channels (but in a different way\r\nfrom other seizure medicines), and this block reduces brain excitability. Side\r\neffects include dizziness, headache, nausea or vomiting, double vision,\r\nfatigue, memory or mood problems. Vimpat may affect the internal organs, blood\r\ncounts or heart rhythm, but these potentially serious side effects are\r\ninfrequent. The recommended starting dose is 50 mg twice daily, increased each\r\nweek by an extra 100 mg, to the recommended maintenance dosage of 100-200 mg\r\ntwice a day.&nbsp;</p><p><br></p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Figure xx: Image of Lamictal Pills</h4><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/lamictal.jpeg\" alt=\"lamictal\" width=\"400\" height=\"400\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"></p><h4>&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.epilepsysociety.org.uk/lamotrigine\">Lamotrigine</a>&nbsp;also available as&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=Lamotrigine\" target=\"_blank\">Lamitcal</a></h4><p>A broad-spectrum alternative to VPA, with a better side effect profile. However, LTG may not be as effective for myoclonic seizures. Lamotrigine works by several mechanisms including blocking release of glutamate, the brain’s main excitatory neurotransmitter. It has the usual side effects of dizziness and fatigue, usually mild cognitive (thinking) impairment. Severe medical side effects are unusual. The practical side effect issue is rash, occurring in several percent of people who take it, especially if the dose is increased too fast. Therefore, it takes a couple of months to get up to the typical adult dose of 200 mg twice a day.&nbsp;</p><p>This is the best option for an EEG when the individual has a normal\r\npeak frequency alpha.</p><br><p></p>\r\n\r\n<h4>&nbsp;</h4><h4><br></h4><h4><a href=\"https://www.epilepsysociety.org.uk/levetiracetam\">Levetiracetam</a>&nbsp;also available as&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=%22Levetiracetam%22\" target=\"_blank\">Desitrend</a>,&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=%22Levetiracetam%22\" target=\"_blank\">Keppra</a></h4>\r\n\r\n<p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/keppra.jpg?time=1588884706231\" alt=\"keppra\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\">Levetiracetam is one of the more\r\nused medicines in seizure clinics because it probably is effective for a\r\nbroad-spectrum of seizures types, has a relatively low incidence of causing\r\nthinking/memory problems, and can be started at 500 mg twice a day, which is an\r\neffective dose. It has no drug interactions, is not metabolized in the liver\r\nand it does not bind to blood proteins. The most common side effects are\r\ndizziness, fatigue, insomnia, but the more troublesome problem can be\r\nirritability and mood changes. This may occur to some degree in up to a third\r\nof those taking the medicine. A typical adult dose is 500 - 1500 mg twice a\r\nday. This is best for epileptic findings that are temporal\r\nand generalized.</p><h3>Figure xx: Image of Keppra</h3><h4>Lorazepam (Ativan)</h4>\r\n\r\n<p>Lorazepam is similar to clonazepam\r\nin dosage and action, but it is not as long-acting. It is usually used as a\r\n‘rescue medication’ for patients who frequently have clusters of seizures. Best used<span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;for status epilepticus or very short-term management, as it is highly addictive and has dependency&nbsp;</span>potential.&nbsp;It\r\nworks reasonably quickly when taken orally and anti-seizure effect lasts for\r\n2-6 hours. Typical adult dose is 0.5-2.0 mg orally or as needed.&nbsp;</p><h4>Figure xx: Image of Lorazepam (Ativan)</h4><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Ativan.jpg\" alt=\"Ativan\" width=\"300\" height=\"300\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></p>\r\n\r\n<h4><a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=%22Oxcarbazepine%22\" target=\"_blank\">Oxcarbazepine</a>&nbsp;also available as <a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=%22Oxcarbazepine%22\" target=\"_blank\">Trileptal</a></h4>\r\n\r\n<p>Slightly different from\r\ncarbamazepine, it is at least as effective, and may have fewer side effects,\r\nexcept for more risk for low blood sodium (hyponatremia). It is more expensive\r\nthan generic carbamazepine. A typical adult dose is 600 mg twice a day.</p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/ox.jpg\" alt=\"ox\" width=\"224\" height=\"224\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_right\"><br></p>\r\n\r\n<h4>·&nbsp;</h4><h4><br></h4><h4><a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=%22Phenobarbital%22\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"font-size: 1.286rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\">Phenobarbital</a><span style=\"font-size: 1.286rem;\">&nbsp;also available as Luminal</span><br></h4>\r\n\r\n<p>The old-timer: very inexpensive and\r\neffective in a single daily dose. Phenobarbital increases the effect of GABA,\r\nthe main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain. Watch for sedation,\r\nthinking/memory problems and depression. Phenobarbital can cause long-term bone\r\nproblems. Phenobarbital is mildly addictive and requires slow withdrawal.&nbsp;</p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/phenobarbital.jpg\" alt=\"phenobarbital\" width=\"259\" height=\"194\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></p>\r\n\r\n<h4>&nbsp;<!--[endif]--><a href=\"https://www.epilepsysociety.org.uk/phenytoin\">Phenytoin</a>&nbsp;also available as<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=phenytoin\" target=\"_blank\">&nbsp;Epanutin</a>,&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=phenytoin+sodium+flynn\" target=\"_blank\">Phenytoin\r\nSodium Flynn</a>, Dilantin</h4>\r\n\r\n<p>The most used AED by general\r\nphysicians in the US, less so by epilepsy doctors, because of the side effects.\r\nPhenytoin alters brain cell sodium channels, which has the effect of limiting\r\n<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/dilantin.jpg\" alt=\"dilantin\" width=\"200\" height=\"200\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_right\">rapid firing of the brain cells. It is inexpensive. Common side effects are\r\nunsteadiness and moderate cognitive problems. There are long-term potential\r\ncosmetic (body/face hair growth, skin problems), and bone problems\r\n(osteoporosis). Phenytoin causes a rash rate of a few percent, sometimes even\r\nthe dangerous rash called Stevens-Johnson syndrome. Typical adult dose is\r\n300-400 mg per day, usually with 100 mg pills.</p>\r\n\r\n<h4>·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]--><a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=pregabalin&amp;offset=1&amp;limit=50&amp;orderBy=company&amp;refreshFilters=true\" target=\"_blank\">Pregabalin</a>&nbsp;also available as&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=pregabalin&amp;offset=1&amp;limit=50&amp;orderBy=product&amp;refreshFilters=true\" target=\"_blank\">Alzain</a>,&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=axalid\" target=\"_blank\">Axalid</a>,<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=pregabalin&amp;offset=1&amp;limit=50&amp;orderBy=newest&amp;refreshFilters=true\" target=\"_blank\">&nbsp;Lecaent</a>,&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=lyrica\" target=\"_blank\">Lyrica</a>,&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=pregabalin&amp;offset=1&amp;limit=50&amp;orderBy=product-desc&amp;refreshFilters=true\" target=\"_blank\">Rewisca</a></h4>\r\n\r\n<p>A relative of gabapentin, it may be\r\nbetter, and can be given twice a day. Some believe that it is more effective\r\nagainst seizures than is gabapentin. Pregabalin has no drug interactions, no\r\nliver metabolism, no protein binding, and similar side effects to gabapentin.\r\nTypical adult dose is 150 - 600 mg bid.&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<h4>·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]--><a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=rufinamide\" target=\"_blank\">Rufinamide</a>&nbsp;available as&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=rufinamide\" target=\"_blank\">Inovelon</a>, Banzel</h4>\r\n\r\n<p>Banzel is approved for add-on treatment of\r\nchildren age 4 and older and adults with&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.epilepsy.com/learn/types-epilepsy-syndromes/lennox-gastaut-syndrome-lgs\">Lennox\r\nGastaut Syndrome</a>. This syndrome can include seizure types such\r\nas atonic (drop) seizures, tonic (stiffening) seizures, myoclonic (brief\r\njerking) seizures, or staring (absence) seizures, as well as partial seizures.\r\nBanzel works on sodium channels in brain cells, in a way to make them less\r\nexcitable. Common side effects include headache, dizziness, fatigue and\r\nsleepiness, double vision and tremor (trembling). People who have the “short QT\r\nsyndrome,” a rare heart rhythm irregularity, should not take Banzel. The drug\r\ncomes as 200 and 400 mg tablets.</p>\r\n\r\n<h4>·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]--><a href=\"https://www.epilepsysociety.org.uk/topiramate\">Topiramate</a>&nbsp;also available as&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=%22Topiramate%22\" target=\"_blank\">Topamax</a></h4>\r\n\r\n<p>A good broad-spectrum AED (i.e.,\r\ntreats all types of seizures). Topiramate has several mechanisms, including\r\nblocking the enzyme carbonic anhydrase, which affects the acidity of brain\r\ntissue. More acidity (to a point) suppresses seizures. Side effects include thinking\r\nand memory problems in about 1/3rd, renal stones in 1-2%, rare cases of\r\nglaucoma (increased eye pressure) and weight loss. Typical adult dose is\r\n150-200 mg twice a day.&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<h4>·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]--><a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=%22valproic+acid%22\" target=\"_blank\">Valproic\r\nacid</a>&nbsp;available as<a href=\"https://bnf.nice.org.uk/drug/valproic-acid.html#indicationsAndDoses\" target=\"_blank\">&nbsp;Depakote,\r\nConvulex</a>,&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=%22valproic+acid%22\" target=\"_blank\">Epilim\r\nChrono</a>,&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=%22valproic+acid%22\" target=\"_blank\">Epilim\r\nChronosphere</a></h4>\r\n\r\n<p>This is the standard broad-spectrum\r\nAED (treats all types of seizures) and no other AED is more effective for\r\ngeneralized seizure types. VPA has effects on GABA (at least in very high\r\ndoses), and a neurotransmitter called NPY to block seizures, and maybe also on\r\ncalcium channels. VPA has significant side effects: weight gain, tremor, hair\r\nloss, GI upset, blood count decreases, hepatic or pancreatic injury, bone\r\nweakness over time (osteoporosis), birth defects in up to 10% (folic acid can\r\nhelp to prevent them). Typical adult dose is 250 mg - 500 mg three times a day,\r\nbut dose can be higher.&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<h4>·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]--><a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=%22vigabatrin%22\" target=\"_blank\">Vigabatrin</a>&nbsp;available as&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=%22vigabatrin%22\" target=\"_blank\">Sabril</a></h4>\r\n\r\n<p>At time of this writing, vigabatrin\r\nis approved in the US, but official package insert information has not become\r\navailable. Vigabatrin is a “designer drug,” made to block metabolism of GABA,\r\nthe brain’s main inhibitory neurotransmitter. Sabril has been used for over a\r\ndecade in many countries, and it is effective for partial seizures, with or\r\nwithout secondary generalization. It also may be very effective for infantile\r\nspasms, a serious type of seizures in young children. Release in the US was\r\ndelayed because the drug is toxic to the retina of the eye in up to 30% of\r\npeople who take it long-term. This toxicity can result in permanent loss of\r\nperipheral vision. Regular vision testing is recommended for all people on this\r\ndrug. A typical regimen begins with 500 mg twice a day, and can increase over a\r\nmonth or two to 1500 mg twice a day.&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<h4>·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]--><a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=zonisamide\" target=\"_blank\">Zonisamide</a>&nbsp;also available as&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=zonisamide\" target=\"_blank\">Zonegran</a></h4>\r\n\r\n<p>Zonisamide is rather similar in its\r\ncoverage and side effects to topiramate, except glaucoma is not usually listed.\r\nSome find less cognitive impairment than with topiramate but this is individual\r\nand dose-dependent. Typical adult dose is 100-300 mg twice a day.</p><br><p></p>',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,1,0,0,1592881006,0,0,0),(81,5,'Analgesic drugs (pain killers) & Opioids','<p><p>An&nbsp;analgesic&nbsp;or&nbsp;painkiller&nbsp;is\r\nany member of the group of&nbsp;drugs&nbsp;used\r\nto achieve analgesia, relief from&nbsp;pain. Analgesic drugs act in various\r\nways on the&nbsp;peripheral&nbsp;and&nbsp;central&nbsp;nervous\r\nsystems. They are distinct from&nbsp;anesthetics, which\r\ntemporarily affect, and in some instances completely eliminate,&nbsp;sensation. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Analgesics include acetaminophen, the&nbsp;nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs&nbsp;(NSAIDs) such as the&nbsp;salicylates, and&nbsp;opioid&nbsp;drugs\r\nsuch as&nbsp;morphine&nbsp;and&nbsp;oxycodone. They can be highly addictive.</p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Oxycontin.jpg\" alt=\"Oxycontin\" width=\"420\" height=\"237\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_right\"></p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->o&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Tramadol is\r\nan opiate analgesic – one of the weaker opiate analgesics, it is used to treat\r\nmoderate to moderate-severe pain.</p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/tramadol.jpg\" alt=\"tramadol\" width=\"200\" height=\"150\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><h1><a name=\"_Toc14686155\">Opiates</a> </h1>\r\n\r\n<p>Opiates include tramadol, oxycodone, morphine, &nbsp;codeine,&nbsp;hydrocodone,&nbsp;dihydromorphine,&nbsp;pethidine</p>\r\n\r\n<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Effects\r\ninclude:</p>\r\n\r\n<p><ul><li>Slowing in the delta range</li><li>&nbsp;Greater\r\nalpha synchron</li><li>&nbsp; Burst\r\nsuppression pattern in neonates</li><li>Enhancement of epileptiform\r\nactivity</li></ul></p>\r\n\r\n<p>The\r\nbelow data is a patient with addiction to pain killers, namely tramadol,\r\noxycontin, and hydrocodone. These medications are known for their addictive\r\nproperties. Tramadol is an opiate that acts as an SNRI, which occupies a\r\nserotonin transporter in the thalamus. This drug can produce a spike wave\r\ndischarge (giving rise to seizure), however the more common findings are less\r\nremarkable: greater alpha synchrony and somewhat heightened beta amplitudes. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>&nbsp;<h3><a name=\"_Toc14686156\">Figure xx: The 5 – 6Hz rhythm we see prominent at O2 and T6&nbsp; is a paroxysmal transient that occurs when the\r\npatient has closed eyes</a>, opiate addict.</h3><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/5-6hz.png\" alt=\"5-6Hz\" width=\"744\" height=\"1089\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></p></p><br></p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><h5><br></h5><h5><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Slow%20Content.png\" alt=\"Slow Content\" width=\"714\" height=\"456\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></h5><h5>Figure xx: The slow content that gives rise to seizure activity in an opiate\r\naddict.</h5><br></p><p><br></p><p>Figure xx:&nbsp;</p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/beta%20spindles.png\" alt=\"Beta Spindlse\" width=\"691\" height=\"1102\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_right\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">The spindling beta is\r\na sign of an easily kindled cortex, which gives rise to epileptiform content.\r\nOpiate addict.</span></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><h5><br></h5><h5>Figure xx: Image of high\r\namplitude spindling beta in an opiate addict.</h5>\r\n\r\n<p>&nbsp;<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/map.png\" alt=\"map\" width=\"718\" height=\"451\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"></p>\r\n\r\n<p>Figures xx and xx (above) shows a fast spindling beta\r\nfrequency. This is a kindling frequency, which means that it is this fast\r\nspindling frequency that ultimately leads to the slow transient discharge that\r\nis ultimately the problem. In this case, the spindling beta represents an\r\nirritable cortex—one that is easily “kindled,” meaning that it easily sets off\r\nan event. </p><p><br></p><p><br></p><br></p><p><br></p>',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,1,0,0,1592881050,0,0,0),(82,5,'Psychotropic & Behavioral Medications','',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,1,0,0,1592881070,0,0,0),(83,6,'An Overview','',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,1,0,0,1592881315,0,0,0),(84,7,'Clinical and Cognitive Aspects','<p>This chapter covers the following:</p><p>1. Origins\r\nof EEG<br></p><p>2. EEG101: the ABCs</p><p>3. Developmental EEGs</p><p>4. EEG of Sleep</p><p>5. EEG Signatures to Refer Out</p><p>6. EEG Profiles and Clnical Presentations of Pathology</p><p>7. Physiological Pathologies<br><p><br></p></p>',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,1,0,0,1592881546,0,0,0),(85,8,'Montages','<p><p><br></p><br></p>',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,1,0,0,1597384485,0,0,0),(86,9,'Introduction','<p><p><br></p></p>',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,1,0,0,1592883359,0,0,0),(87,9,'Neurofeedback protocols','<h5>This section covers the following neurofeedback and neuromodulation protocols:<br><h5>1) LENS and HPN</h5><h5><a name=\"_Toc3535268\" style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-size: 1rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\">2) S</a><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">low Cortical\r\nPotential Neurofeedback and Infra Slow Fluctuation&nbsp; Neurofeedback</span></h5><h5>3) Amplitude Training</h5>4) Single Channel and 19 Channel</h5><h5>5) Z-score</h5><h5>6) Wide Band Inhibit</h5><h5>7) Multi-variate training</h5><h5>8) Hemoencephalography</h5><h5>9) The Othmer Method</h5><h5>10) LORETA Z-Score</h5><h5>11) Neuromodulation Protocols</h5><h5>a) tDCS<br></h5><h5>b) tACS</h5><h5>c) tRNS</h5><h5>d) Pink Noise</h5><h5>e) pEMF</h5><h5>f) CES<br></h5><h3 style=\"display: inline !important;\"><br></h3>',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',1,0,1,0,0,1592883376,0,0,0),(88,10,'Ethical and Professional Conduct','<p><p><br></p>\r\n\r\n<p>&nbsp;</p><br></p>',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,1,0,0,1592883624,0,0,0),(89,75,'Introduction','',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,0,0,0,1590948287,0,0,0),(90,7,'EEG 101: A Lecture','<p>This lecture covers the fundamentals of EEG and QEEG analysis.</p>',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,1,0,0,1592881569,0,0,0),(91,11,'How to Register for Practicum','<p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p>The practicum is a 6-hour, online class, offered twice annually. Attendance at the live event is mandatory. Video recordings will not be distributed following the class.</p><p>The practicum is interactive with a hands-on segment covering:&nbsp; A. Types of artifact detection (1 hour) B. The recording of EEGs (1 hour) C. EEG analysis (including advanced interpretative techniques to avoid misdiagnosis and the skillful use of montages) (2 hours) D. Recognizing pathological signatures, (1 hour) and E. Introduction to various neurofeedback and neuromodulation modalities (1 hour).</p><p>When you have completed all of the previous chapters, please email: schoolofneurotherapy@gmail.com&nbsp;to request admission and we will contact you as soon as possible.</p><p></p>\r\n\r\n<p><br></p><br><p></p><p></p><p></p>',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,0,0,0,1635292611,0,0,0),(93,7,'Password for Missed and Meaningful Signatures: ISNR202001','',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,0,0,0,1598244182,0,0,0),(101,17,'1) Introduction','<p>Introduction<br></p>',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,1,0,0,1636129805,0,0,0),(102,17,'2) Street Drugs','<p>Street Drugs<br></p>',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,1,0,0,1636129820,0,0,0),(103,17,'3) Anti-Epileptic and Anti-Convulsant Drugs (AEDs)','<p></p><p>Anti-epileptic drugs (AED) and anti-convulsant drugs are most\r\nprescribed by neurologists for the treatment of seizures and epileptiform\r\ndischarges.</p>\r\n\r\n<h1>Generic AED names with&nbsp;brand names</h1>\r\n\r\n<h4>Carbamazepine&nbsp;also available as&nbsp;Carbagen,&nbsp;Tegretol,&nbsp;Tegretol\r\nProlonged Release</h4>\r\n\r\n<p>Carbamazepine is a favorite partial seizure medicine in the developed world. Carbamazepine affects\r\nsodium channels, and inhibits rapid firing of brain cells. Long-acting forms\r\nsuch as Carbatrol or Tegretol-XR can be given once a day. Potential side\r\neffects include GI upset, weight gain, blurred vision, low blood counts, low\r\nblood sodium (hyponatremia). Carbamazepine causes a rash rate of a few percent,\r\nsometimes even the dangerous rash called Stevens-Johnson syndrome. People of\r\nAsian descent with HLA-B*1502 antigen are more at risk. Typical adult dose is\r\n400 mg tid.&nbsp;</p><p>This is a good choice of AED for slow alpha variants.</p><h3>Figure xx: Image of Tegretol pills and chemical bond</h3><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/carb.jpg\" alt=\"carb\" width=\"300\" height=\"436\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><h4><br></h4><h4>Benzodiazepines and EEG Effects</h4>\r\n\r\n<p>Benzodiazepines produce a spindling, sinusoidal hyper-rhythmic 18-25Hz pattern. They also decrease alpha.&nbsp;<span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">Sometimes this pattern is more pronounced in the front of the head, but the\r\npattern can be seen globally.&nbsp;</span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">Dosing and systemic vascularity of the being will alter the\r\nexpression of how the drug will appear.</span></p><p></p><h4>Figure xx: Image of Benzodiazepine Toxicity in EEG. Image generated from Neuroguide version\r\n3.0.6.</h4><br><p></p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/benzos.png\" alt=\"EEG of Benzos\" width=\"925\" height=\"979\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br><p></p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</p><h3>Figure xx: Image of\r\nBenzodiazepine Toxicity in a Linked Ears Montage. Image generated from\r\nNeuroguide version 3.0.6.</h3><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/benzos%202.png\" alt=\"benzos 2\" width=\"714\" height=\"943\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></p><p></p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p></p><h3>Figure 5: Image of\r\nBenzodiazepine Toxicity in individual Hertz bins (linked ears montage). Image\r\ngenerated from Neuroguide version 3.0.6.</h3><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/benzo3.png\" alt=\"benzo3\" width=\"714\" height=\"361\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></p><br><p></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/benzo4.png\" alt=\"benzo4\" width=\"718\" height=\"360\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><h3>More Anti-Convulstants</h3>\r\n\r\n<h4><a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=%22Gabapentin%22\" target=\"_blank\">Gabapentin</a>&nbsp;also available as&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=neurontin\" target=\"_blank\">Neurontin</a></h4>\r\n\r\n<p><p>This is often used as a secondary\r\nanticonvulsant to boost GABA.&nbsp;<span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">Gabapentin\r\nhas the reputation of being a safe but not particularly powerful AED. The\r\neffectiveness criticism probably is because it is often prescribed at too low a\r\ndose. The drug probably works by influencing transport of GABA and effects on\r\ncalcium channels. It has no drug interactions, is not metabolized in the liver\r\nand it does not bind to blood proteins. Side effects are unsteadiness, weight\r\ngain, fatigue, dizziness. Typical adult dose is 300-600 mg three times a, but\r\ndoses can be up to 1200 mg three times a day.</span></p><h3><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">Figure xx: Image of Neurontin Pills</span></h3></p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/neurontin.jpg\" alt=\"Neurontin\" width=\"531\" height=\"385\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"></p>\r\n\r\n<h4><a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=lacosamide\" target=\"_blank\">Lacosamide</a>&nbsp;available as&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=lacosamide\" target=\"_blank\">Vimpat</a></h4>\r\n\r\n<p>&nbsp;Lacosamide is a new (2009) antiepileptic drug\r\n, for partial and secondarily generalized seizures. It is chemically related to\r\nthe amino acid, serine. Vimpat blocks sodium channels (but in a different way\r\nfrom other seizure medicines), and this block reduces brain excitability. Side\r\neffects include dizziness, headache, nausea or vomiting, double vision,\r\nfatigue, memory or mood problems. Vimpat may affect the internal organs, blood\r\ncounts or heart rhythm, but these potentially serious side effects are\r\ninfrequent. The recommended starting dose is 50 mg twice daily, increased each\r\nweek by an extra 100 mg, to the recommended maintenance dosage of 100-200 mg\r\ntwice a day.&nbsp;</p><p><br></p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Figure xx: Image of Lamictal Pills</h4><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/lamictal.jpeg\" alt=\"lamictal\" width=\"400\" height=\"400\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"></p><h4>&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.epilepsysociety.org.uk/lamotrigine\">Lamotrigine</a>&nbsp;also available as&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=Lamotrigine\" target=\"_blank\">Lamitcal</a></h4><p>A broad-spectrum alternative to VPA, with a better side effect profile. However, LTG may not be as effective for myoclonic seizures. Lamotrigine works by several mechanisms including blocking release of glutamate, the brain’s main excitatory neurotransmitter. It has the usual side effects of dizziness and fatigue, usually mild cognitive (thinking) impairment. Severe medical side effects are unusual. The practical side effect issue is rash, occurring in several percent of people who take it, especially if the dose is increased too fast. Therefore, it takes a couple of months to get up to the typical adult dose of 200 mg twice a day.&nbsp;</p><p>This is the best option for an EEG when the individual has a normal\r\npeak frequency alpha.</p><br><p></p>\r\n\r\n<h4>&nbsp;</h4><h4><br></h4><h4><a href=\"https://www.epilepsysociety.org.uk/levetiracetam\">Levetiracetam</a>&nbsp;also available as&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=%22Levetiracetam%22\" target=\"_blank\">Desitrend</a>,&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=%22Levetiracetam%22\" target=\"_blank\">Keppra</a></h4>\r\n\r\n<p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/keppra.jpg?time=1588884706231\" alt=\"keppra\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\">Levetiracetam is one of the more\r\nused medicines in seizure clinics because it probably is effective for a\r\nbroad-spectrum of seizures types, has a relatively low incidence of causing\r\nthinking/memory problems, and can be started at 500 mg twice a day, which is an\r\neffective dose. It has no drug interactions, is not metabolized in the liver\r\nand it does not bind to blood proteins. The most common side effects are\r\ndizziness, fatigue, insomnia, but the more troublesome problem can be\r\nirritability and mood changes. This may occur to some degree in up to a third\r\nof those taking the medicine. A typical adult dose is 500 - 1500 mg twice a\r\nday. This is best for epileptic findings that are temporal\r\nand generalized.</p><h3>Figure xx: Image of Keppra</h3><h4>Lorazepam (Ativan)</h4>\r\n\r\n<p>Lorazepam is similar to clonazepam\r\nin dosage and action, but it is not as long-acting. It is usually used as a\r\n‘rescue medication’ for patients who frequently have clusters of seizures. Best used<span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;for status epilepticus or very short-term management, as it is highly addictive and has dependency&nbsp;</span>potential.&nbsp;It\r\nworks reasonably quickly when taken orally and anti-seizure effect lasts for\r\n2-6 hours. Typical adult dose is 0.5-2.0 mg orally or as needed.&nbsp;</p><h4>Figure xx: Image of Lorazepam (Ativan)</h4><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Ativan.jpg\" alt=\"Ativan\" width=\"300\" height=\"300\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></p>\r\n\r\n<h4><a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=%22Oxcarbazepine%22\" target=\"_blank\">Oxcarbazepine</a>&nbsp;also available as <a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=%22Oxcarbazepine%22\" target=\"_blank\">Trileptal</a></h4>\r\n\r\n<p>Slightly different from\r\ncarbamazepine, it is at least as effective, and may have fewer side effects,\r\nexcept for more risk for low blood sodium (hyponatremia). It is more expensive\r\nthan generic carbamazepine. A typical adult dose is 600 mg twice a day.</p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/ox.jpg\" alt=\"ox\" width=\"224\" height=\"224\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_right\"><br></p>\r\n\r\n<h4>·&nbsp;</h4><h4><br></h4><h4><a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=%22Phenobarbital%22\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"font-size: 1.286rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\">Phenobarbital</a><span style=\"font-size: 1.286rem;\">&nbsp;also available as Luminal</span><br></h4>\r\n\r\n<p>The old-timer: very inexpensive and\r\neffective in a single daily dose. Phenobarbital increases the effect of GABA,\r\nthe main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain. Watch for sedation,\r\nthinking/memory problems and depression. Phenobarbital can cause long-term bone\r\nproblems. Phenobarbital is mildly addictive and requires slow withdrawal.&nbsp;</p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/phenobarbital.jpg\" alt=\"phenobarbital\" width=\"259\" height=\"194\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></p>\r\n\r\n<h4>&nbsp;<!--[endif]--><a href=\"https://www.epilepsysociety.org.uk/phenytoin\">Phenytoin</a>&nbsp;also available as<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=phenytoin\" target=\"_blank\">&nbsp;Epanutin</a>,&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=phenytoin+sodium+flynn\" target=\"_blank\">Phenytoin\r\nSodium Flynn</a>, Dilantin</h4>\r\n\r\n<p>The most used AED by general\r\nphysicians in the US, less so by epilepsy doctors, because of the side effects.\r\nPhenytoin alters brain cell sodium channels, which has the effect of limiting\r\n<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/dilantin.jpg\" alt=\"dilantin\" width=\"200\" height=\"200\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_right\">rapid firing of the brain cells. It is inexpensive. Common side effects are\r\nunsteadiness and moderate cognitive problems. There are long-term potential\r\ncosmetic (body/face hair growth, skin problems), and bone problems\r\n(osteoporosis). Phenytoin causes a rash rate of a few percent, sometimes even\r\nthe dangerous rash called Stevens-Johnson syndrome. Typical adult dose is\r\n300-400 mg per day, usually with 100 mg pills.</p>\r\n\r\n<h4>·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]--><a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=pregabalin&amp;offset=1&amp;limit=50&amp;orderBy=company&amp;refreshFilters=true\" target=\"_blank\">Pregabalin</a>&nbsp;also available as&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=pregabalin&amp;offset=1&amp;limit=50&amp;orderBy=product&amp;refreshFilters=true\" target=\"_blank\">Alzain</a>,&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=axalid\" target=\"_blank\">Axalid</a>,<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=pregabalin&amp;offset=1&amp;limit=50&amp;orderBy=newest&amp;refreshFilters=true\" target=\"_blank\">&nbsp;Lecaent</a>,&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=lyrica\" target=\"_blank\">Lyrica</a>,&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=pregabalin&amp;offset=1&amp;limit=50&amp;orderBy=product-desc&amp;refreshFilters=true\" target=\"_blank\">Rewisca</a></h4>\r\n\r\n<p>A relative of gabapentin, it may be\r\nbetter, and can be given twice a day. Some believe that it is more effective\r\nagainst seizures than is gabapentin. Pregabalin has no drug interactions, no\r\nliver metabolism, no protein binding, and similar side effects to gabapentin.\r\nTypical adult dose is 150 - 600 mg bid.&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<h4>·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]--><a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=rufinamide\" target=\"_blank\">Rufinamide</a>&nbsp;available as&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=rufinamide\" target=\"_blank\">Inovelon</a>, Banzel</h4>\r\n\r\n<p>Banzel is approved for add-on treatment of\r\nchildren age 4 and older and adults with&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.epilepsy.com/learn/types-epilepsy-syndromes/lennox-gastaut-syndrome-lgs\">Lennox\r\nGastaut Syndrome</a>. This syndrome can include seizure types such\r\nas atonic (drop) seizures, tonic (stiffening) seizures, myoclonic (brief\r\njerking) seizures, or staring (absence) seizures, as well as partial seizures.\r\nBanzel works on sodium channels in brain cells, in a way to make them less\r\nexcitable. Common side effects include headache, dizziness, fatigue and\r\nsleepiness, double vision and tremor (trembling). People who have the “short QT\r\nsyndrome,” a rare heart rhythm irregularity, should not take Banzel. The drug\r\ncomes as 200 and 400 mg tablets.</p>\r\n\r\n<h4>·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]--><a href=\"https://www.epilepsysociety.org.uk/topiramate\">Topiramate</a>&nbsp;also available as&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=%22Topiramate%22\" target=\"_blank\">Topamax</a></h4>\r\n\r\n<p>A good broad-spectrum AED (i.e.,\r\ntreats all types of seizures). Topiramate has several mechanisms, including\r\nblocking the enzyme carbonic anhydrase, which affects the acidity of brain\r\ntissue. More acidity (to a point) suppresses seizures. Side effects include thinking\r\nand memory problems in about 1/3rd, renal stones in 1-2%, rare cases of\r\nglaucoma (increased eye pressure) and weight loss. Typical adult dose is\r\n150-200 mg twice a day.&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<h4>·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]--><a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=%22valproic+acid%22\" target=\"_blank\">Valproic\r\nacid</a>&nbsp;available as<a href=\"https://bnf.nice.org.uk/drug/valproic-acid.html#indicationsAndDoses\" target=\"_blank\">&nbsp;Depakote,\r\nConvulex</a>,&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=%22valproic+acid%22\" target=\"_blank\">Epilim\r\nChrono</a>,&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=%22valproic+acid%22\" target=\"_blank\">Epilim\r\nChronosphere</a></h4>\r\n\r\n<p>This is the standard broad-spectrum\r\nAED (treats all types of seizures) and no other AED is more effective for\r\ngeneralized seizure types. VPA has effects on GABA (at least in very high\r\ndoses), and a neurotransmitter called NPY to block seizures, and maybe also on\r\ncalcium channels. VPA has significant side effects: weight gain, tremor, hair\r\nloss, GI upset, blood count decreases, hepatic or pancreatic injury, bone\r\nweakness over time (osteoporosis), birth defects in up to 10% (folic acid can\r\nhelp to prevent them). Typical adult dose is 250 mg - 500 mg three times a day,\r\nbut dose can be higher.&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<h4>·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]--><a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=%22vigabatrin%22\" target=\"_blank\">Vigabatrin</a>&nbsp;available as&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=%22vigabatrin%22\" target=\"_blank\">Sabril</a></h4>\r\n\r\n<p>At time of this writing, vigabatrin\r\nis approved in the US, but official package insert information has not become\r\navailable. Vigabatrin is a “designer drug,” made to block metabolism of GABA,\r\nthe brain’s main inhibitory neurotransmitter. Sabril has been used for over a\r\ndecade in many countries, and it is effective for partial seizures, with or\r\nwithout secondary generalization. It also may be very effective for infantile\r\nspasms, a serious type of seizures in young children. Release in the US was\r\ndelayed because the drug is toxic to the retina of the eye in up to 30% of\r\npeople who take it long-term. This toxicity can result in permanent loss of\r\nperipheral vision. Regular vision testing is recommended for all people on this\r\ndrug. A typical regimen begins with 500 mg twice a day, and can increase over a\r\nmonth or two to 1500 mg twice a day.&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<h4>·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]--><a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=zonisamide\" target=\"_blank\">Zonisamide</a>&nbsp;also available as&nbsp;<a href=\"https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/search?q=zonisamide\" target=\"_blank\">Zonegran</a></h4>\r\n\r\n<p>Zonisamide is rather similar in its\r\ncoverage and side effects to topiramate, except glaucoma is not usually listed.\r\nSome find less cognitive impairment than with topiramate but this is individual\r\nand dose-dependent. Typical adult dose is 100-300 mg twice a day.</p><br><p></p>',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,1,0,0,1636129830,0,0,0),(104,17,'4) Analgesic drugs (pain killers) & Opioids','<p><p>An&nbsp;analgesic&nbsp;or&nbsp;painkiller&nbsp;is\r\nany member of the group of&nbsp;drugs&nbsp;used\r\nto achieve analgesia, relief from&nbsp;pain. Analgesic drugs act in various\r\nways on the&nbsp;peripheral&nbsp;and&nbsp;central&nbsp;nervous\r\nsystems. They are distinct from&nbsp;anesthetics, which\r\ntemporarily affect, and in some instances completely eliminate,&nbsp;sensation. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>Analgesics include acetaminophen, the&nbsp;nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs&nbsp;(NSAIDs) such as the&nbsp;salicylates, and&nbsp;opioid&nbsp;drugs\r\nsuch as&nbsp;morphine&nbsp;and&nbsp;oxycodone. They can be highly addictive.</p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Oxycontin.jpg\" alt=\"Oxycontin\" width=\"420\" height=\"237\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_right\"></p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->o&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Tramadol is\r\nan opiate analgesic – one of the weaker opiate analgesics, it is used to treat\r\nmoderate to moderate-severe pain.</p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/tramadol.jpg\" alt=\"tramadol\" width=\"200\" height=\"150\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><h1><a name=\"_Toc14686155\">Opiates</a> </h1>\r\n\r\n<p>Opiates include tramadol, oxycodone, morphine, &nbsp;codeine,&nbsp;hydrocodone,&nbsp;dihydromorphine,&nbsp;pethidine</p>\r\n\r\n<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Effects\r\ninclude:</p>\r\n\r\n<p><ul><li>Slowing in the delta range</li><li>&nbsp;Greater\r\nalpha synchron</li><li>&nbsp; Burst\r\nsuppression pattern in neonates</li><li>Enhancement of epileptiform\r\nactivity</li></ul></p>\r\n\r\n<p>The\r\nbelow data is a patient with addiction to pain killers, namely tramadol,\r\noxycontin, and hydrocodone. These medications are known for their addictive\r\nproperties. Tramadol is an opiate that acts as an SNRI, which occupies a\r\nserotonin transporter in the thalamus. This drug can produce a spike wave\r\ndischarge (giving rise to seizure), however the more common findings are less\r\nremarkable: greater alpha synchrony and somewhat heightened beta amplitudes. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>&nbsp;<h3><a name=\"_Toc14686156\">Figure xx: The 5 – 6Hz rhythm we see prominent at O2 and T6&nbsp; is a paroxysmal transient that occurs when the\r\npatient has closed eyes</a>, opiate addict.</h3><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/5-6hz.png\" alt=\"5-6Hz\" width=\"744\" height=\"1089\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></p></p><br></p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><h5><br></h5><h5><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Slow%20Content.png\" alt=\"Slow Content\" width=\"714\" height=\"456\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></h5><h5>Figure xx: The slow content that gives rise to seizure activity in an opiate\r\naddict.</h5><br></p><p><br></p><p>Figure xx:&nbsp;</p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/beta%20spindles.png\" alt=\"Beta Spindlse\" width=\"691\" height=\"1102\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_right\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">The spindling beta is\r\na sign of an easily kindled cortex, which gives rise to epileptiform content.\r\nOpiate addict.</span></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><h5><br></h5><h5>Figure xx: Image of high\r\namplitude spindling beta in an opiate addict.</h5>\r\n\r\n<p>&nbsp;<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/map.png\" alt=\"map\" width=\"718\" height=\"451\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"></p>\r\n\r\n<p>Figures xx and xx (above) shows a fast spindling beta\r\nfrequency. This is a kindling frequency, which means that it is this fast\r\nspindling frequency that ultimately leads to the slow transient discharge that\r\nis ultimately the problem. In this case, the spindling beta represents an\r\nirritable cortex—one that is easily “kindled,” meaning that it easily sets off\r\nan event. </p><p><br></p><p><br></p><br></p><p><br></p>',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,1,0,0,1636129842,0,0,0),(105,17,'5) Psychotropic & Behavioral Medications','',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',100,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,1,0,0,1636129854,0,0,0),(106,14,'1) The Central Nervous System','<p></p><h2><a>The Central Nervous System (CNS)</a></h2><p>The central nervous system includes the brain (contained within the skull), which weighs 1.3–1.4 kg in humans, and also the spinal cord, which extends into the vertebral canal. The brain is grossly divided into the brainstem, cerebellum, and cerebrum. The cerebrum is further divided into the basal ganglia, limbic system, and neocortex.</p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/CNS.jpg\" alt=\"Central Nervous System\" width=\"424\" height=\"839\"><p></p><p></p><p><i>Figure 2a: The major components of the Central Nervous System</i></p><p></p><h2><a></a><a>Spinal cord</a></h2><p>The spinal cord descends from the brainstem down through the shielded tunnel of the vertebrae,&nbsp; and transmits information from the body to the brain and from the brain to the body. Thus, the central nervous system is composed of nerves the are rooted to both the surface of the brain, as well as to the spinal cord. Most nerves are peripheral nerves, which extend and branch toward the surface of the body.</p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Spinal%20Cord.jpg\" alt=\"Spinal Cord Anatomy\" width=\"372\" height=\"471\"><p></p><p><i>Figure 2b: Anatomy of the Spinal Cord</i></p><p><i><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Peripheral%20Nervous%20System.jpg\" alt=\"Peripheral Nervous System\" width=\"723\" height=\"917\"><br></i></p><div>\r\n\r\n<p>The brain grows, layer upon layer, like an onion. Brain cells generating grab onto a guide wire,\r\nwhich is a glial\r\nfiber, a glial highway, with the nucleus\r\nin the back. No other kind&nbsp;<span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">of cell has to do this. Neurons travel in waves,\r\nwhich scientists call migration.\r\n&nbsp;In terms of the distances relative to their size, they are making an odyssey, without &nbsp;mistakes telling\r\nthem where to go in the brain.</span></p><p>of cell has to do this. Neurons travel in waves,\r\nwhich scientists call migration.\r\n&nbsp;In terms of the distances relative to their size, they are making an odyssey, without &nbsp;mistakes telling\r\nthem where to go in the brain.</p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p>Here is a cool video made by the Pasterkamp lab, outlining the signaling events and molecular mechanisms involved in the formation of neuronal connections during development.<br></p><p><br></p><p>&nbsp;<video controls=\"true\"><source src=\"<iframe width=&quot;560&quot; height=&quot;315&quot; src=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/embed/ZWACm6BkDVo&quot; frameborder=&quot;0&quot; allow=&quot;accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture&quot; allowfullscreen></iframe>\">&lt;iframe width=\"560\" height=\"315\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/ZWACm6BkDVo\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen&gt;&lt;/iframe&gt;</video>&nbsp;<br></p><p></p><h2><span style=\"font-size: 2.143rem;\"><br></span></h2><h2><span style=\"font-size: 2.143rem;\">The Triune Brain Theory</span><br></h2><p>The triune brain\r\nwas first described by Maclean in 1990, as consisting of three layers that depict\r\nour evolution individually as a species. The first layer is the reptilian\r\nbrain (its core), responsible for activation, arousal,\r\nhomeostasis, and reproductive drives. This is the dinosaur brain, the same brain that has been around for 2,000,000\r\nyears. The reticular formation at\r\nthe conjunction &nbsp;of the thalamus and the brainstem oscillates at 2Hz (delta) {Thatcher, 2015). At&nbsp;<span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">birth, this structure &nbsp;is already\r\nin place and fully functional.</span></p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/triune%20brain.jpg\" alt=\"Triune Brain\" width=\"790\" height=\"514\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br><p></p><p></p><p>The reptilian\r\nbrain controls the body’s most basic, involuntary actions, like heartbeat,\r\nbreathing, body temperature regulation, and balance. It consists of the\r\nbrainstem and the cerebellum (which joins the limbic thalamus by the reticular\r\nactivating system). The cerebellum is the most densely packed area;\r\nsurprisingly, this is where 80% of the brain’s neurons live (Herculano-Houzel,\r\n2010). Used mostly for gross movements and balance, parts of the cerebellum are\r\ninvolved in the coordination of language, memory, and&nbsp;<span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">reasoning (Schmahmann, 1997). Interestingly, new literature\r\nsuggests that the cerebellum plays a significant role in regulating the\r\ncerebrum, both via white matter (sub-cortically) and via grey&nbsp;</span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">matter (cortically) (Schmahmann, 1997, 1998, 2000; Teicher,\r\nAnderson, &amp; Polcari, 2012). This is the part of the brain that is cradled\r\nby the hand of a loving mother, and the part of the brain that also\r\nunconsciously senses the absence of her hand, in situations of neglect (Fisher,\r\n2014, p. 23).</span></p>\r\n\r\n<p><a name=\"_Toc3535195\" style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 2.143rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\">Brainstem</a><br></p>\r\n\r\n<p>The brainstem is\r\nresponsible for carrying all information from the body to the cerebrum and\r\ncerebellum (hindbrain) and from the brain to the body. The pathways ascending\r\nfrom the body to the brain are the sensory pathways and communicate to your\r\nbrain that which is going on with the body (pain, hunger, desires, temperature,\r\nsensations, etc). The descending pathways move from the brain to the body. The\r\nlast job of the brain stem is its regulation of various systems, such as your\r\ncardiovascular system, respiratory system, pain sensitivity controls, as well\r\nas alertness, and consciousness.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>The brainstem plays a\r\nprimary role in conduit functions. That is, all information related from the\r\nbody to the cerebrum and cerebellum and vice versa, must traverse the brain\r\nstem. The ascending pathways coming from the body to the brain are the sensory\r\npathways. Descending tracts are upper motor neurons destined to synapses on\r\nlower motor neurons. The brain stem also has integrative functions. It is\r\ninvolved in cardiovascular system control, respiratory control, pain\r\nsensitivity control, alertness, and consciousness.</p>Here is a short video on the anatomy of the brainstem.<p></p><p>&nbsp;<video controls=\"true\"><source src=\"<iframe width=&quot;560&quot; height=&quot;315&quot; src=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/embed/T2zjlB4ctu4&quot; frameborder=&quot;0&quot; allow=&quot;accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture&quot; allowfullscreen></iframe>\">&lt;iframe width=\"560\" height=\"315\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/T2zjlB4ctu4\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen&gt;&lt;/iframe&gt;</video>&nbsp;<br></p><p></p><h2><a name=\"_Toc28940390\">THE LIMBIC SYSTEM</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p>After the reptilian brain is formed,\r\nthe next layer,\r\nthe paleomammalian &nbsp;brain, better known as the limbic system,\r\nis primed and ready to be further &nbsp;developed by early life experiences. This area is largely\r\nresponsible for the functions&nbsp; of memory, learning,\r\nand emotion. This second layer is responsible for basic autonomic\r\nfunctioning, as well as reflexes, and basic\r\nsurvival (DeRidder, 2014).\r\nThe proliferation of the limbic system created higher\r\nfrequencies, such as theta and alpha. The limbic\r\nstructures include the amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus, basal\r\nganglia, and cingulate\r\ngyrus. These limbic\r\nstructures are wrapped\r\nin the cerebral cortex, which is the outermost\r\n&nbsp;and third &nbsp;layer\r\nof the brain.</p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Limbic%20System.png\" alt=\"Limbic System\" width=\"258\" height=\"179\" class=\"atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></p>\r\n\r\n<p>From an\r\nevolutionary perspective, the reptilian brain is fully functional at birth and\r\nthe second layer—the limbic system—is prepared for the organizational\r\nexperiences of early life. The neuronal development of the brain’s first and\r\nsecond layers are virtually complete at birth; the branching of dendrites that\r\noccurs thereafter is dubbed “wiring,” since the growth of neurons and dendrites\r\nresembles wires (Seung, 2012). The wiring and creation of oligodendrocytes\r\n(glia cells&nbsp;<span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">responsible for myelination) now occurs from the limbic structures into the\r\ncortex. The self-reliance of the brain circuits has increased as we have\r\nevolved, and have moved to higher levels in the brain, ones that have less and\r\nless contact with sensory inputs.</span></p>\r\n\r\n<p>Most of our\r\nsignificant early emotional and intellectual experiences, those that shape our\r\nlater perceptions and reactions, occur when the limbic and reptilian structures\r\nare in dominance (Cozolino, 2002, p. 9). That is to say, many of our\r\nsocial-emotional reactions and behaviors are literally programmed beneath the\r\nsurface of our consciousness. Indeed, empirical evidence suggests that\r\nprocessing emotion can occur without conscious awareness (Balconi &amp;\r\nLucchiari, 2008; Bunce, Bernat, Wong, &amp; Shevrin, 1999; LeDoux, 1998a). </p>\r\n\r\n<p><a name=\"_Toc28940391\" style=\"color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.715rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\">Neuroanatomy of the Limbic System</a><br></p><p><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">The amygdala is located\r\nwithin the temporal</span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;lobes. It is essential to the experience of fear responses and its primary\r\nfunction is arousal.\r\nThis complex structure &nbsp;controls the autonomic responses associated with fear; emotional responses\r\n{i.e. rage and anger) and Hormonal\r\nSecretions. The right-side amygdala is devoted\r\nto survival and reacts to threats, both real and perceived. The amygdala is an\r\nalmond shaped mass of nuclei located deep within the temporal lobes, medial to the hypothalamus and adjacent to the hippocampus. This area of the brain is\r\nprone to kindling, which is essentially repetitive &nbsp;neuronal firing\r\nthat gives rise to high\r\namplitudes, until the pattern collapses. Each kindling lowers\r\nthe threshold of the future\r\nones, making them more likely.</span><br></p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/amygdala.png\" alt=\"amygdala\" width=\"456\" height=\"585\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"></div><div><br></div><div><br></div><div>Check out this video of the Amygdala:<br><p></p><p>&nbsp;<video controls=\"true\"><source src=\"<iframe width=&quot;560&quot; height=&quot;315&quot; src=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/embed/JVvMSwsOXPw&quot; frameborder=&quot;0&quot; allow=&quot;accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture&quot; allowfullscreen></iframe>\">&lt;iframe width=\"560\" height=\"315\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/JVvMSwsOXPw\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen&gt;&lt;/iframe&gt;</video>&nbsp;<br></p><p></p><h3><br></h3>\r\n\r\n<h4>Basal Ganglia</h4>\r\n\r\n<p>The Basal Ganglia are collections of nerve cells deep within\r\nthe brain. Most of the basal ganglia are concerned with movement, though parts are devoted to language, thought, motivation &nbsp;and emotion. They include the caudate nucleus,\r\nthe putamen, the thalamus, the globus pallidus,\r\nand the tail of the caudate nucleus.</p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Basal%20Ganglia.png\" alt=\"Basal Ganglia\" width=\"574\" height=\"402\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></p><div>\r\n\r\n<h4>Diencephalon</h4><p>This is the division\r\nof the forebrain, the forward &nbsp;most\r\nportion &nbsp;of the brain in vertebrates, which controls temperature, reproductive functions, eating, sleeping, and the display\r\nof emotions. The diencephalon includes\r\nthe thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior portion of\r\nthe pituitary &nbsp;gland and the pineal gland. The third\r\nventricle is enclosed\r\nby the diencephalon.<span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;</span></p><p><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/diencephalon.jpg\" alt=\"diencephalon\" width=\"500\" height=\"376\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></span></p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Hypothalamus</h4><p>The hypothalamus links the nervous\r\nsystem to the endocrine system via the pituitary\r\n&nbsp;gland (hypophysis). The hypothalamus controls\r\nbody temperature, hunger, thirst, fatigue, anger, and circadian\r\ncycles. The hypothalamus is located below the thalamus,\r\njust above the brain stem. The hypothalamus is responsible for certain metabolic processes and other activities of the autonomic nervous system. It synthesizes and secretes neurohormones, often\r\ncalled hypothalamic-releasing &nbsp;hormones, and these in turn stimulate or inhibit the secretion of pituitary\r\n&nbsp;hormones.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>&nbsp;<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/hypothtrlamus.jpg\" alt=\"hypothalamus\" width=\"600\" height=\"300\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"></p><p>For your viewing pleasure, a short video on the hypothalamus:</p><p>&nbsp;<video controls=\"true\"><source src=\"<iframe width=&quot;560&quot; height=&quot;315&quot; src=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/embed/TVhm2rBGhB0&quot; frameborder=&quot;0&quot; allow=&quot;accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture&quot; allowfullscreen></iframe>\">&lt;iframe width=\"560\" height=\"315\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/TVhm2rBGhB0\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen&gt;&lt;/iframe&gt;</video>&nbsp;<br></p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Hippocampus&nbsp;</h4><p>The hippocampus is a part of the forebrain, located\r\nin the medial temporal lobe. It belongs to the limbic system and plays major roles in short term memory\r\nand spatial navigation.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>Here\'s a video on the hippocampus:&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;<video controls=\"true\"><source src=\"<iframe width=&quot;560&quot; height=&quot;315&quot; src=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/embed/5EyaGR8GGhs&quot; frameborder=&quot;0&quot; allow=&quot;accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture&quot; allowfullscreen></iframe>\">&lt;iframe width=\"560\" height=\"315\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/5EyaGR8GGhs\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen&gt;&lt;/iframe&gt;</video>&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Pituitary</h4><p>The pituitary is a small pea-size master gland of the endocrine\r\n&nbsp;system that sits in a\r\nbony depression beneath\r\nthe hypothalamus. Its job deals with directing chemical changes to regulate\r\nthe entire organic\r\nsystem.</p><p>Here is a short video on the pituitary and the hypothalamus</p><p>&nbsp;<video controls=\"true\"><source src=\"<iframe width=&quot;560&quot; height=&quot;315&quot; src=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/embed/TVhm2rBGhB0&quot; frameborder=&quot;0&quot; allow=&quot;accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture&quot; allowfullscreen></iframe>\">&lt;iframe width=\"560\" height=\"315\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/TVhm2rBGhB0\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen&gt;&lt;/iframe&gt;</video>&nbsp;<br></p>\r\n\r\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Reticular\r\nformation</h4><p>The reticular &nbsp;formation (also known as the reticular activating system) is at the core of the brainstem\r\n&nbsp;and plays a\r\nvital role in sleep, emotion, breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate.&nbsp;<span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">The reticular formation oscillates at 2 hz and is the dinosaur\r\nbrain, roughly </span><i style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">2,000,000 </i><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">years old in its evolutionary trajectory,\r\nis the same structure &nbsp;that we have.</span></p><p><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/RAS.jpg\" alt=\"RAS\" width=\"600\" height=\"600\" class=\"atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></span></p></div>\r\n\r\n<h4>Thalamus</h4><p>The thalamus\r\nis an egg-shaped structure &nbsp;deep within the brain that acts as a relay station, receiving information from all senses (except\r\nolfactory) &nbsp;processing the data and passing it between the spinal <i>cord,</i><i> </i>the medulla oblongata and the cerebral\r\ncortex. It relays sensory signals like motor &nbsp;signals to the <i>cortex, </i>and it also plays in the regulation of\r\nsleep and arousal states. It is the beginning of the brain\'s\r\nformation at 5 weeks in utero.</p><p><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">The thalamus is composed of the thalamic nuclei, which aids in the processing of various stimuli. Here is a general video of the thalamus:</span></p><p><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">&nbsp;<video controls=\"true\"><source src=\"<iframe width=&quot;560&quot; height=&quot;315&quot; src=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/embed/IF8_82e9RmQ&quot; frameborder=&quot;0&quot; allow=&quot;accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture&quot; allowfullscreen></iframe>\">&lt;iframe width=\"560\" height=\"315\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/IF8_82e9RmQ\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen&gt;&lt;/iframe&gt;</video>&nbsp;<br></span></p><p>And here is a video on the specificities of the various parts of the thalamic nuclei:</p><p>&nbsp;<video controls=\"true\"><source src=\"<iframe width=&quot;560&quot; height=&quot;315&quot; src=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/embed/H-oCTE41Evg&quot; frameborder=&quot;0&quot; allow=&quot;accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture&quot; allowfullscreen></iframe>\">&lt;iframe width=\"560\" height=\"315\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/H-oCTE41Evg\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen&gt;&lt;/iframe&gt;</video>&nbsp;<br></p><p>Here is a general video of the Basal Ganglia</p><p>&nbsp;<video controls=\"true\"><source src=\"<iframe width=&quot;560&quot; height=&quot;315&quot; src=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/embed/OD2KPSGZ1No&quot; frameborder=&quot;0&quot; allow=&quot;accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture&quot; allowfullscreen></iframe>\">&lt;iframe width=\"560\" height=\"315\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/OD2KPSGZ1No\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen&gt;&lt;/iframe&gt;</video>&nbsp;<br></p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Caudate Nucleus</h4><p>The caudate nucleus is one of the structures that makes up\r\nthe dorsal striatum of the basal ganglia. This part of the brain&nbsp;plays\r\nimportant roles in various other nonmotor functions as well, including&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural_learning\" title=\"Procedural learning\">procedural learning</a>, <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associative_learning\" title=\"Associative learning\">associative learning</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inhibitory_control\" title=\"Inhibitory control\">inhibitory control</a>&nbsp;of action, &nbsp;among\r\nother functions. The caudate is also one of the brain structures which compose\r\nthe&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reward_system\" title=\"Reward system\">reward system</a>&nbsp;and functions as part of\r\nthe&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex\" title=\"Prefrontal cortex\">cortico</a>–<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basal_ganglia\" title=\"Basal ganglia\">basal ganglia</a>–<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thalamus\" title=\"Thalamus\">thalamic</a>&nbsp;loop.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>And here is a little video of the Caudate Nucleus (It\'s a little funky, but helps explain anatomy):</p><p>&nbsp;<video controls=\"true\"><source src=\"<iframe width=&quot;560&quot; height=&quot;315&quot; src=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/embed/GcB5_gXka2g&quot; frameborder=&quot;0&quot; allow=&quot;accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture&quot; allowfullscreen></iframe>\">&lt;iframe width=\"560\" height=\"315\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/GcB5_gXka2g\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen&gt;&lt;/iframe&gt;</video>&nbsp;<br></p>\r\n\r\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\r\n\r\n<h4><a name=\"_Toc525053947\">Parahippocampal Gyrus</a></h4><p><a name=\"_Hlk525136529\">The parahippocampal gyrus is a region which is responsible for\r\nmany functions, most notably for short-term working memory. The left-hand side\r\nis related to more verbal processes than the right, the right hand side has\r\nmore to do with forming associations. This area of the brain has much to do\r\nwith the encoding and recognition of scenes; this area of the brain becomes\r\nactive when taking in topographical scenes (images of cities, landscapes, and\r\nrooms—images of places).&nbsp; Furthermore,\r\nthis area is involved in procedural memory consolidation, recognition, and\r\nrecall. It is a component part of the networks for autobiographical memory,\r\nembarrassment, and regret.</a> </p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Parahippocampal%20gyrus.jpg\" alt=\"PArahippocampal gyrus\" width=\"1600\" height=\"1131\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br><p></p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/parahippocampal%20gyrus.png\" alt=\"parahippocampal gyrus\" width=\"1077\" height=\"1239\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></p><h4>Tiff Thompson\'s Depth Theory of Neuroanatomy</h4><p></p><p>Proponents of\r\nthe collective unconscious theory in neuroscience have suggested that neurobiological\r\ncorrelates to the collective unconscious are the subcortical areas of the\r\nbrain, specifically the thalamus (which oscillates in delta, theta, and alpha\r\nrhythms). The thalamus operates like a regulatory gateway, since all of the\r\nsensory input that comes into the brain, and all motor output, goes through the\r\nthalamus. The thalamus regulates what goes in and what goes out.&nbsp; Because these structures are located centrally,\r\nlinking the brain with the rest of the nervous system, they are said to control\r\nvital processes, such as emotions and long-term memory (Hunt, 2012). Arousal\r\noccurs in the face of a threat, triggered by the amygdala, which is an almond\r\nshaped structure in the brain responsible for mediating the fear response. The\r\namygdala locks down the hippocampus so as to react by shutting down this\r\nstructure, the seat of the memory (LeDoux, 1998b). LeDoux speculates, however,\r\nthat psychoanalysis works by strengthening the cortical control of the\r\namygdala. In fact, the face-to face reciprocity between infant and mother is\r\ncrucial for the development of the pre-frontal cortex, which serves to mediate\r\nthe amygdala and regulate affect (Schore, 1994, 2003; Siegel, 1999; Stern,\r\n2013; Tronick, 2007).</p>\r\n\r\n<p>Sigmund Freud, quite rightly, believed\r\nthat mental activity\r\nwas rooted in phylogenically­ old emotion &nbsp;and motivation\r\n&nbsp;systems, which\r\nwere constructed&nbsp; in early mental development, and instantiated throughout later adult life (LeDoux, 1998a;Panskepp, 1998). Thus, affective reactivity, such as dissociation, can be seen as a return\r\n&nbsp;to nonverbal, largely unconscious parts of the brain. These are areas that can influence the higher-ordered new-mammalian brain\r\n(Cozolino, 2002, p. 6). Furthermore, these older regions are innervated\r\n&nbsp;by the vagus nerve,\r\nwhich literally means \"wandering nerve.\" The vagus nerve is also called the \"wandering nerve\" because it\'s the longest\r\nnerve in the human body and has countless branches\r\nthat wind their\r\nway from the brainstem all the way down to the lowest\r\npart of the intestines, touching\r\nmost major organs along the way. The vagus nerve is the tenth\r\n&nbsp;cranial nerve and is the main afferent pathway connecting the gut to the brain. This nerve modulates the parasympathetic nervous system, which counterbalances the fight, flight,&nbsp;<span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">or freeze stress response\r\nby eliciting the so­\r\ncalled \"relaxation &nbsp;response.\"</span></p><h4><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">The Vagus Nerve</span></h4>\r\n\r\n<p>&nbsp;<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Vagus%20Nerve.jpg\" alt=\"Vagus Nerve\" width=\"500\" height=\"1859\" class=\"atto_image_button_text-bottom\"></p><p><br></p><p>A study released in June of 2015 noted the\r\ndiscovery of vessels directly connecting the brain\r\nand the lymphatic system, a finding which will likely\r\nhave continual substantial implications for major neurological diseases and also more common &nbsp;psychopathologies (Louveau\r\net al., 2015). This finding changes\r\nthe way scientists\r\nperceive neuro-immune interaction, and may make the link between the body and the brain/mind something beyond esotericism.</p><br><p></p><p></p></div><p></p>',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',0,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,0,0,0,1655322731,0,0,0),(107,14,'3) The Cortex and its Cells','<p></p><p></p><br><p></p>',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',0,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,0,0,0,1655322930,0,0,0),(109,14,'4) The Lobes of the Brain','<p></p><p>The basic division of each of the hemispheres is into four lobes:\r\nfrontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital. Two prominent ﬁssures allow this\r\nsubdivision to be made — the central ﬁssure and the lateral ﬁssure.</p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Lobes.png\" alt=\"Lobes\" width=\"557\" height=\"368\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br><p></p><p></p><h2><a name=\"_Toc28940412\">Pre-Frontal Cortex</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p>&nbsp;The prefrontal cortex <a href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10559553\" target=\"_blank\">makes up over\r\n10% of the volume of the brain</a>, The PFC contains the&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brodmann_area\" title=\"Brodmann area\">Brodmann areas 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 24, 25, 44, 46 and 47. </a><sup>&nbsp;</sup>This brain\r\nregion has been implicated in&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planning\" title=\"Planning\">planning complex cognitive behavior</a>, personality expression,&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_making\" title=\"Decision making\">decision making</a>, moderating\r\nsocial behavior, and <img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/PFC.png\" alt=\"PFC\" width=\"306\" height=\"242\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\">moderating certain aspects of speech and\r\nlanguage.&nbsp;The basic activity of this brain region is considered to be orchestration\r\nof thoughts and actions in accordance with internal goals.<sup> </sup>The most\r\ntypical&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology\" title=\"Psychology\">psychological</a>&nbsp;term for functions carried out by the prefrontal cortex\r\narea is&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_system\" title=\"Executive system\">executive function</a>. Executive function relates to\r\nabilities to differentiate among conflicting thoughts, determine good and bad,\r\nbetter and best, same and different, future consequences of current activities,\r\nworking toward a defined goal, prediction of outcomes, expectation based on\r\nactions, and social \"control\" (the ability to suppress urges that, if\r\nnot suppressed, could lead to socially unacceptable outcomes). Patients with\r\nprefrontal cortex damage can experience blunted emotional responses, which may\r\nbe another factor that negatively affects their ability to make decisions.</p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Frontal%20Lobes.png\" alt=\"Frontal Lobes\" width=\"500\" height=\"425\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></p><p>Frontal lobes have the ability to regulate eye movement this is\r\nvisual accommodation and convergence, the ability of the eyes to go left and\r\nright and focus and read.&nbsp; There is a\r\nphysiological problem with ADD/ADHD kids—they have more difficulty keeping\r\ntheir eyes still. </p><h3><a name=\"_Toc28940413\">Dorso-Lateral Pre-Frontal Cortex</a></h3>\r\n\r\n<p>Between\r\nBrodmann areas 9, 10, 44 and 45 is the Dorso-Lateral Pre-Frontal Cortex\r\n(DLPFC).<a name=\"_Hlk494097976\"> This area </a><a name=\"_Hlk520354468\">is the highest cortical area responsible for\r\nmotor planning, organization and regulation. It has an important role in the\r\nintegration of sensory and mnemonic information.</a></p><p><a name=\"_Hlk520354468\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/DLPFC.jpg\" alt=\"DLPFC\" width=\"400\" height=\"372\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></a></p>\r\n\r\n<p>This area has cortical (surface)\r\nand sub cortical (under the surface—white matter) circuits for complex mental\r\nactivity and executive functions. It plays a large role in executive memory\r\n(working memory, spatial memory, and short term memory), memory retrieval and\r\nencoding/recognition, as well as prospective memory, abstract thinking,\r\nintentionality and motivation. </p>\r\n\r\n<p>In addition, this area is responsible for error processing and\r\ndetection, processing emotional stimuli, self-reflection in decision making,\r\npleasant and unpleasant emotions, inferential reasoning, decision weighing\r\n(conflict and reward), planning, and attribution of intention to others.</p>\r\n\r\n<p>The sensory\r\nresponsibilities of the dorsolateral pre-frontal cortex have to do with joint\r\nattention and autonomic nervous system regulation. The&nbsp;autonomic nervous system&nbsp;(ANS&nbsp;or&nbsp;visceral nervous system&nbsp;or&nbsp;involuntary nervous system) is the part of the&nbsp;<a href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system\" title=\"Peripheral nervous system\">peripheral nervous system</a>&nbsp;that acts as a&nbsp;<a href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_system\" title=\"Control system\">control system</a>&nbsp;that functions largely below the\r\nlevel of&nbsp;<a href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness\" title=\"Consciousness\">consciousness</a>&nbsp;to control&nbsp;<a href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscera\" title=\"Viscera\">visceral</a>&nbsp;functions,&nbsp;including&nbsp;<a href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart_rate\" title=\"Heart rate\">heart rate</a>,&nbsp;<a href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digestion\" title=\"Digestion\">digestion</a>,&nbsp;<a href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiratory_rate\" title=\"Respiratory rate\">respiratory rate</a>, <a href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salivation\" title=\"Salivation\">salivation</a>,&nbsp;<a href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perspiration\" title=\"Perspiration\">perspiration</a>,&nbsp;<a href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pupillary_dilation\" title=\"Pupillary dilation\">pupillary dilation</a>,&nbsp;<a href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micturition\" title=\"Micturition\">micturition</a>&nbsp;(urination),&nbsp;<a href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_arousal\" title=\"Sexual arousal\">sexual arousal</a>,&nbsp;<a href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breathing\" title=\"Breathing\">breathing</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swallowing\" title=\"Swallowing\">swallowing</a>. Most\r\nautonomous functions are involuntary but they can often work in conjunction\r\nwith the&nbsp;<a href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatic_nervous_system\" title=\"Somatic nervous system\">somatic nervous system</a>&nbsp;which provides voluntary control.</p><h2><a name=\"_Toc28940414\">Sensory motor Cortex</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p>The sensory motor cortex registers sensation that is connected\r\nwith specific body parts or body functions. The motor strip is part of the\r\nfrontal lobe and is anterior to the sensory cortex, which is in the parietal\r\nlobe. Collectively, the sensory motor cortex forms the central lobes of the brain.\r\nThe primary motor cortex is Brodmann area 4, which works with other motor areas\r\nof the brain to plan and execute movements. The primary motor cortex receives\r\nthalamic inputs from different cell bodies within the thalamus. The nerve\r\nfibers that cast somatosensory information all over the body. &nbsp;The sensory motor cortex is made up of\r\nBrodmann areas 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.</p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/CENTRAL%20LOBE.png\" alt=\"CENTRAL LOBE\" width=\"559\" height=\"425\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br><p></p>',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',0,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,0,0,0,1655323249,0,0,0),(110,14,'5) Brodmann Areas','<p></p><h1><a name=\"_Toc28940422\">BRODMANN AREAS</a></h1>\r\n\r\n<p>The initial\r\napproach to understanding what part of the brain controlled what function was\r\nthe legacy of Sir Charles Scott Sherrington (1857 – 1952) who found that different parts of the\r\nbrain have different cellular architecture and control different functions and\r\nsensations. And in 1909, Korbinian Brodmann discovered that different regions\r\nof the brain had different cellular architecture, which he divided into\r\nnumbered areas (today called “Brodmann areas”). &nbsp;He dissected the brain into 52 distinct\r\nregions. The cerebellar cortex is also subdivided into nearly a hundred areas.\r\nCurrently, we know that each of these divisions is composed of characteristic\r\nneuronal circuits that consist of numerous neurons of diverse types\r\ninterconnected with each other via synapses. </p><h4>Figures xx and xx: Sir Charles Scott Sherrington (Left) and Korbinian Brodmann (Right)</h4><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/K%20Brodmann.jpg\" alt=\"K Brodmann\" width=\"318\" height=\"472\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_right\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Sherrington.jpg\" alt=\"Sherrington\" width=\"216\" height=\"287\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><h3><a name=\"_Toc28940423\">Figure xx: Original Cortical Atlas by Brodmann,\r\nColorized Lateral View of the left hemisphere</a></h3><p><a name=\"_Toc28940423\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Brodmann%201.png\" alt=\"Brodmann areas\" width=\"405\" height=\"284\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></a></p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\">Figure xx: The 52 Brodmann areas of the brain</a><br><p></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/brodmann%202.png\" alt=\"brodmann 2\" width=\"621\" height=\"277\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"></a></p><h4><a name=\"_Toc28940424\">Brodmann area functions</a></h4><a name=\"_Toc28940424\">\r\n\r\n<p>8 sub-categories or groupings</p>\r\n\r\n<p>Areas not in humans include: 14, 15, 27\r\nand 49</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->1)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->executive functioning (9, 10, 44, 45,\r\n46)</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->2)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->motor (4, 6, 8)</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->3)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->somatosensory (1, 2, 3, 5, 40, 31)</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->4)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->attention (7, 39)</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->5)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->visual (17, 18, 19, 15, 16)</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->6)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->memory (20, 21, 37, 28, 36)</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->7)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Emotional regulation (11, 38, 47, 13)</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->8)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Sound (22, 41, 42)</p>\r\n\r\n<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->9)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<!--[endif]-->Primary Gustatory Area (43) Olfactory (34)</p>\r\n\r\n<p>&nbsp;</p></a><h4><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"></a><a name=\"_Toc28940425\">Bas 3, 1,and 2</a></h4><p><a name=\"_Toc28940425\"></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940425\">This region is the primary somatosensotry cortex and is located at\r\nthe post central gyrus of the brain (behind the Rolandic Fissure). It is\r\ndivided into Brodmann areas 1, 2, 3a, and 3b. 3b is thought to be the primary\r\nsomato-sensory cortex, and projects the outputs received from 3a to Brodmann\r\nareas 1 and 2. BA 3 mediates bodily sensations, because its wired to pathways\r\nbringing touch, pain, and temperature signals from the spinal cord, BA1 gets\r\ninformation on texture and Brodmann area 2 gets information on the size and the\r\nshape of an object. COOL!!</a></p><p></p><p>Figures xx and xx: Brodmann areas 1, 2, and 3</p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA%20123.png\" alt=\"BA 123\" width=\"271\" height=\"254\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br><p></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA123.png\" alt=\"BA 123\" width=\"625\" height=\"464\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\">BA 4</a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\">Brodmann area\r\n4 is the primary motor cortex of the brain and is located at the pre central\r\nsulcus.&nbsp; It is considered the most\r\nposterior part of the frontal lobe. BA 4 controls movements of the body and\r\nsends many axons to the spinal cord, which in turn is wired to the muscles of\r\nthe body.</a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA%204.png\" alt=\"BA 4\" width=\"487\" height=\"747\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_right\"><br></a></p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\">\r\n\r\nThis\r\nregion is the region of the motor homunculus, which is mainly involved in\r\ncontrolling voluntary dynamic, kinesthetic movements. It is responsible for\r\nmotor (finger, hand wrist, lip tongue, face, mouth, and lower limb movement, as\r\nwell as eye movements and blinking and learning motor sequences. This area is\r\nalso responsible for somatosensory perception, such as finger moving and touch\r\n, and kinesthetic perception of limb movements. This region as the main motor center of the brain,\r\ninitiates the onset of movements, mainly produced by contraction of skeletal muscle.\r\nThese impulses pass via the internal capsule to the spinothalamic tract in the\r\nspinal cord, both parts of the pyramidal system.&nbsp;<br>\r\n<!--[if !supportLineBreakNewLine]--><br>\r\n<!--[endif]--><br></a><p></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"><br></a></p><p><a name=\"_Toc28940424\"></a></p><h2><a name=\"_Toc28940427\">BA 5</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p>Brodmann area\r\n5 is part of the parietal cortex, making up the superior parietal lobe as part\r\nof the post central gyrus. It is right behind Brodmann areas 1, 2, and 3, the\r\nprimary somatosensory cortex. This\r\narea is involved with spatial orientation, and receives a great deal of visual\r\ninput as well as sensory input from one\'s hand. The postcentral gyrus is the principal somatic (of the body)\r\nsensory area. It is the end-point of sensory information from the skin (for\r\ntouch, pain, pressure and temperature sensation) and from the spindle organs in\r\nthe joints (for position sense).&nbsp;</p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA5.png\" alt=\"BA5\" width=\"595\" height=\"949\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br></p>\r\n\r\n<p>Comprehensively, this area is responsible for generating actions,\r\nmoving hands, moving limbs, sensing of our fingers, experiencing softness and\r\nvibration, moving tongue and mouth, swallowing, voluntary breathing, imagining\r\nactions, blinking and eye movements, the mirror neuron system, and verbal\r\nencoding. The slow Beta rhythm of 13-14 hz was once used in neurofeedback\r\ntraining as a means of reducing seizure and adding calm to patients otherwise\r\nstricken with anxiety. The lack of this particular bandwidth in this region\r\nsuggests a lack of proprioceptive awareness and potentially a more anxious\r\nstate.</p><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><h2><a name=\"_Toc28940428\">BA 6</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p>BA 6 are part of the frontal lobe\r\nand lies anterior to the motor cortex (Brodmann area 4). The functions of\r\nBrodmann area 6 are the premotor cortex are diverse and project directly to\r\nthe&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinal_cord\" title=\"Spinal cord\">spinal cord</a>.&nbsp;This region therefore may play a\r\nrole in the direct control of behavior, with a relative emphasis on the&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torso\" title=\"Torso\">trunk\r\nmuscles</a>&nbsp;of the body. It may also play\r\na role in planning movement, in the spatial guidance of movement, in the\r\nsensory guidance of movement, in understanding the actions of others, and in\r\nusing abstract rules to perform specific tasks. This area is also responsible for intention. </p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/Brodmann%20area%206.png\" alt=\"Brodmann area 6\" width=\"248\" height=\"394\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"></p><h2><a name=\"_Toc28940429\"></a><a name=\"_Toc16242834\"></a><a name=\"_Toc525053908\">BA 7</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p>Brodmann area\r\n7 part of the parietal cortex of the brain and located posterior to the&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_somatosensory_cortex\" title=\"Primary somatosensory cortex\">primary somatosensory cortex</a>&nbsp;(<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postcentral_gyrus\" title=\"Postcentral gyrus\">Brodmann areas 3, 1 and 2</a>), and\r\nsuperior to the&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occipital_lobe\" title=\"Occipital lobe\">occipital lobe</a>. This\r\nregion is believed to play a role in&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visuo-motor_coordination\" title=\"Visuo-motor coordination\">visuo-motor coordination</a>\r\n(e.g. tool use, reaching to grasp an object, handwriting, and visuospatial\r\nattention.&nbsp;(e.g.,\r\nin reaching to grasp an object). In addition, area 7 along with&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brodmann_area_5\" title=\"Brodmann area 5\">area 5</a>&nbsp;has been linked to\r\na wide variety of high-level processing tasks, including activation in\r\nassociation with language use.<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brodmann_area_7#cite_note-2\"><sup>[2]</sup></a>&nbsp;This\r\nfunction in language has been theorized to stem from how these two regions play\r\na vital role in generating&nbsp;<a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscious\" title=\"Conscious\">conscious</a>&nbsp;constructs\r\nof objects in the world, including self-reflection.</p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA7.png\" alt=\"Brodmann area 7\" width=\"246\" height=\"395\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_left\"><br><p></p><h4><a name=\"_Toc28940430\">BA 8</a></h4><h5>Brodmann area 8 is anterior to Brodmann\r\narea 6 and is part of the frontal cortex. It includes the frontal eye fields\r\n(so that if one has a stroke on injury to the brain in this region, the eyes\r\nwill drift towards the injury. It is involved in the management of uncertainty,\r\nas well as the encoding of hope (a higher-order expectation positively\r\ncorrelated with uncertainty).</h5><h2><a name=\"_Toc28940431\"></a><br></h2><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA8.png\" alt=\"BA8\" width=\"249\" height=\"393\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br><h2><a name=\"_Toc525053909\">BA 9 and 10</a></h2><p>Brodmann area 9 located in the pre-frontal cortex is responsible for executive memory, abstract thinking, intentionality and motivation, memory (working memory, spatial memory, short term memory, memory encoding and recognition, memory retrieval, forgetting), motor skills, error detection, inductive reasoning, language skills (verbal fluency, metaphor comprehension, semantic categorization, verbal fluency, word-stem completion, generating sentences, etc). This area is underactive in individuals dealing with bipolar depressive disorders. Left BA9 is responsible for empathy, processing pleasant and unpleasant emotional scenes, self-criticism, and attention to negative emotions.<img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA9.png\" alt=\"BA9\" width=\"258\" height=\"400\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-top\"></p><p>Right BA9 is responsible for attention to positive emotions, recognizing the emotions of others, attributing intention, suppressing sadness, theory of mind, working memory and spatial memory, as well as planning, calculation, and religiosity.</p><p></p><h2><a name=\"_Toc28940432\"></a><a name=\"_Toc16242836\"></a><a name=\"_Toc525053910\">BA 10</a></h2>\r\n\r\n<p><a name=\"_Hlk28777532\">Brodmann area\r\n10 is the anterior-most portion of the pre-frontal cortex. Overall, this area\r\nof the brain governs working memory; spatial memory; recognition; recall;\r\nintentional forgetting; recognizing emotions; calculation; pain; organization,\r\nmaintenance, and implementation of intentions, source monitoring (who said what\r\ninformation), logical inference, hypometabolism in bipolar disorder (with\r\nparalimbic, insula, and cingulate hypermetabolism).</a></p>\r\n\r\n<h3><a name=\"_Toc28940433\">Brodmann\r\narea 10L</a></h3>\r\n\r\n<p>Brodmann area\r\n10L is responsible for self-reflection (about one\'s own abilities, traits and\r\nattitudes), Syntax, Metaphor, Lexical processing, Verbs, Self-reflection,\r\nSelf-appraise, Inferences during reading,&nbsp;\r\nForgiveability judgment (of a crime), the integration of disparate\r\nrelationships, dysfunction during remission in major depression, and the execution\r\nof delayed intentions.</p><p><img src=\"@@PLUGINFILE@@/BA10.png\" alt=\"BA10\" width=\"254\" height=\"394\" class=\"img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom\"><br></p>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n<h3><a name=\"_Toc28940434\">Brodmann area 10 R</a> </h3>\r\n\r\n<p><a name=\"_Hlk28777561\">Brodmann area\r\n10 is responsible for recalling episodes, nonspeech sounds,&nbsp; familiar odors, reward vs conflict, risk vs\r\nbenefit, and carrying out delayed intentions.</a></p><br><p></p><br><p></p>',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',0,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,0,0,0,1655323239,0,0,0),(111,14,'2) The Neurophysiology of EEG Generation','',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',0,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,0,0,0,1655322918,0,0,0),(112,15,'2) Basics of the Procedure, Hygiene, & Instrumentation Demo','',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',0,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,0,0,0,1655323441,0,0,0),(113,15,' Artifacting Data','<p>The software program you choose will have its own way of artifacting data (e.g. you will either select the portions of the data you want to save, select the portions of data you want to discard, or automatically select the portions of data you want to keep).<br></p>',1,0,0,0,'',0,'O:8:\"stdClass\":3:{s:9:\"timespent\";i:0;s:9:\"completed\";i:0;s:15:\"gradebetterthan\";i:0;}',0,1,0,0,5,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,'',480,640,0,0,640,480,'#FFFFFF',0,0,0,0,0,1655323784,0,0,0);

--
-- Table structure for table `mdl_lesson_answers`
--

CREATE TABLE `mdl_lesson_answers` (
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  `lessonid` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `pageid` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `jumpto` bigint(11) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `grade` smallint(4) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `score` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `flags` smallint(3) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `timecreated` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `timemodified` bigint(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `answer` longtext,
  `answerformat` tinyint(2) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `response` longtext,
  `responseformat` tinyint(2) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  PRIMARY KEY (`id`),
  KEY `mdl_lessansw_les_ix` (`lessonid`),
  KEY `mdl_lessansw_pag_ix` (`pageid`)
) ENGINE=InnoDB AUTO_INCREMENT=687 DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8mb4 ROW_FORMAT=COMPRESSED COMMENT='Defines lesson_answers';

--
-- Dumping data for table `mdl_lesson_answers`
--

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,'Next',0,NULL,0),(440,52,259,-40,0,0,0,1587063726,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(441,52,260,-1,0,0,0,1587063779,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(442,52,260,-40,0,0,0,1587063779,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(443,52,261,-1,0,0,0,1587063992,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(444,52,261,-40,0,0,0,1587063992,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(447,52,263,-1,0,0,0,1587064416,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(448,52,263,-40,0,0,0,1587064416,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(449,52,264,-1,0,0,0,1587064626,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(450,52,264,-40,0,0,0,1587064626,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(451,52,265,-1,0,0,0,1587064788,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(452,52,265,-40,0,0,0,1587064788,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(453,52,266,-9,0,0,0,1587065989,0,'Finish',0,NULL,0),(454,52,266,-40,0,0,0,1587065989,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(455,53,267,-1,0,0,0,1587141900,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(456,53,268,-1,0,0,0,1587141908,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(457,53,268,-40,0,0,0,1587141908,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(458,53,269,-1,0,0,0,1587142378,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(459,53,269,-40,0,0,0,1587142378,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(460,53,270,-1,0,0,0,1587142465,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(461,53,270,-40,0,0,0,1587142465,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(462,53,271,-9,0,0,0,1587142530,0,'Finish',0,NULL,0),(463,53,271,-40,0,0,0,1587142530,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(464,54,272,-1,0,0,0,1587142881,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(465,54,272,-40,0,0,0,1587142881,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(466,54,273,-1,0,0,0,1587142890,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(467,54,273,-40,0,0,0,1587142890,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(468,54,274,-1,0,0,0,1587143111,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(469,54,274,-40,0,0,0,1587143111,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(470,54,275,-1,0,0,0,1587143146,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(471,54,275,-40,0,0,0,1587143146,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(472,54,276,-1,0,0,0,1587143241,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(473,54,276,-40,0,0,0,1587143241,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(474,54,277,-1,0,0,0,1587143582,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(475,54,277,-40,0,0,0,1587143582,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(476,54,278,-1,0,0,0,1587143659,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(477,54,278,-40,0,0,0,1587143659,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(478,54,279,-1,0,0,0,1587143720,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(479,54,279,-40,0,0,0,1587143720,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(480,54,280,-1,0,0,0,1587143880,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(481,54,280,-40,0,0,0,1587143880,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(482,54,281,-1,0,0,0,1587145941,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(483,54,281,-40,0,0,0,1587145941,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(484,54,282,-1,0,0,0,1587146018,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(485,54,282,-40,0,0,0,1587146018,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(486,54,283,-1,0,0,0,1587146084,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(487,54,283,-40,0,0,0,1587146084,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(488,54,284,-1,0,0,0,1587146267,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(489,54,284,-40,0,0,0,1587146267,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(490,54,285,-1,0,0,0,1587146314,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(491,54,285,-40,0,0,0,1587146314,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(492,54,286,-1,0,0,0,1587146359,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(493,54,286,-40,0,0,0,1587146359,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(494,54,287,-9,0,0,0,1587146412,0,'Finish',0,NULL,0),(495,54,287,-40,0,0,0,1587146412,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(496,55,288,-1,0,0,0,1587146762,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(497,55,289,-1,0,0,0,1587146769,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(498,55,289,-40,0,0,0,1587146769,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(499,55,290,-1,0,0,0,1587147049,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(500,55,290,-40,0,0,0,1587147049,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(501,55,291,-1,0,0,0,1587147187,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(502,55,291,-40,0,0,0,1587147187,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(503,55,292,-1,0,0,0,1587147305,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(504,55,292,-40,0,0,0,1587147305,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(505,55,293,-1,0,0,0,1587147392,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(506,55,293,-40,0,0,0,1587147392,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(507,55,294,-1,0,0,0,1587147604,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(508,55,294,-40,0,0,0,1587147604,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(509,55,295,-9,0,0,0,1587147662,0,'Finish',0,NULL,0),(510,55,295,-40,0,0,0,1587147662,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(511,56,296,-9,0,0,0,1587148829,0,'Finish',0,NULL,0),(513,57,298,-1,0,0,0,1587149169,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(514,57,299,-1,0,0,0,1587149180,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(515,57,299,-40,0,0,0,1587149180,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(516,57,300,-1,0,0,0,1587149244,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(517,57,300,-40,0,0,0,1587149244,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(518,57,301,-1,0,0,0,1587149319,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(519,57,301,-40,0,0,0,1587149319,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(520,57,302,-1,0,0,0,1587149371,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(521,57,302,-40,0,0,0,1587149371,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(522,57,303,-1,0,0,0,1587149416,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(523,57,303,-40,0,0,0,1587149416,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(524,57,304,-1,0,0,0,1587149451,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(525,57,304,-40,0,0,0,1587149451,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(526,57,305,-1,0,0,0,1587149490,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(527,57,305,-40,0,0,0,1587149490,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(528,57,306,-1,0,0,0,1587149543,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(529,57,306,-40,0,0,0,1587149543,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(530,57,307,-9,0,0,0,1587149643,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(531,57,307,-40,0,0,0,1587149643,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(532,58,308,-1,0,0,0,1587149943,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(533,58,309,-1,0,0,0,1587149950,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(534,58,309,-40,0,0,0,1587149950,0,'Previous',0,NULL,0),(535,58,310,-1,0,0,0,1587149999,0,'Next',0,NULL,0),(536,58,3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