<h4>Event Related Potentials</h4><p>An ERP is an event related potential.&nbsp;An event-related potential is the measured brain response that is the direct result of a specific sensory, cognitive, or motor event. More formally, it is any stereotyped electrophysiological response to a stimulus. The study of the brain in this way provides a noninvasive means of evaluating brain functioning. ERPs can be used to explore a huge range of topics,
including development, visual attention, anxiety &amp;
depression, individual differences in working memory,
and who will eventually awake from a coma. In an ERP, stimuli are given, again and again, and the participant has to respond to the stimuli, usually by clicking a mouse to indicate recognition of what they're directed to note.</p><p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/ERP.png" alt="ERP Stimulus and response" width="900" height="537" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_left"><span style="font-size: 1rem;">To pull out the brain’s
consist response to some
type of event, we can simply
average across the epochs
for that event type.
When we average across
enough epochs, any activity
that’s consistent from trial to
trial remains in the average,
and any random noise
simply averages out.</span></p><p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/ERP%20Compilation.png" alt="ERP compilation" width="700" height="559" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom"><br></p><p>In a typical ERP
experiment, we time-lock to
the onset of a stimulus. In
other words, time zero is
stimulus onset.
When we do this, we can
track the flow of information
about the stimulus through
the brain over a period of
several hundred
milliseconds.<br></p><p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/ERP%20decoding.png" alt="ERP Decodinng" width="800" height="716" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_left"><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p>This method of computational neuroscience is advanced, but very useful for clinicians who are working with a diverse client population. Some of the demographics this testing procedure is particularly useful for include: TBI and Concussion, age-related cognitive decline and dementias, learning disabilities, ADHD, depression and other pathologies where the executive functioning of the individual is thought to be compromised.&nbsp;</p><p>If you are interested in ERPs, check out the Neurofield ERP software program and trainings at ww.neurofield.com.</p><p><br></p><h4>Slow Cortical Potentials</h4><p></p><p><span lang="DE">Slow Cortical Potentials are slow shifts in the EEG that last from 0.3 seconds to several seconds, infra slow oscillations are typically 0.1Hz and lower. These shifts in the EEG reflect the depolarization of large groups of pyramidal cells in the cortex. These slow shifts are caused by the burning of blood glucose, that makes up the hemodynamics of the glial cells.&nbsp;For two decades researchers have proposed that neurons, glial cells, and blood may be regarded as compound generators of these infra-slow bioelectrical phenomena (Hughes, Lőrincz, Parri, &amp; Crunelli, 2011; Zschocke &amp; Speckmann, 1993). Thalamocortical neurons have been observed to exhibit robust infra-slow oscillations (ISOs), in vitro, at approximately 0.005–0.1 Hz (Lőrincz, Geall, Bao, Crunelli, &amp; Hughes, 2009). After a reappraisal of in vivo and in vitro evidence, Crunelli and Hughes (2010) have proposed a three cardinal oscillator model that identifies one cortical and two thalamic sources of infra-slow frequencies. Astrocytes have recently been identified by Hughes et al. (2011) as a source of ISOs in the 0.003–0.1 frequency range. These researchers observed neurons in cat Thalamus succumbing to a cyclic inhibitory influence that they proposed was generated in the slow regime by Thalamocortical astrocytes. These cells create large electro-negative swings when they depolarize. Slow Cortical Potentials (SCP) are changes of cortical polarization lasting several hundred milliseconds to several seconds. SCPs are related to the excitability level of underlying cortical regions. Negative SCP shifts reflect higher cortical excitability while positive shifts reflect reduced excitability or even inhibition. Sheets of cortical neurons are depolarized in the creation of SCPs. It has been hypothesized that in autism spectrum cases, the threshold of depolarization is too high and in ADHD cases, the threshold of depolarization is too low. Additionally, in patients with seizure&nbsp;conditions, large negative potential shifts have been observed moments before a seizure. (ADHD children are taught to increase the negativity of the SCP, while autistic and seizure cases are taught to decrease the negativity of the SCP).<br></span><span lang="DE"></span></p><p><span lang="DE">In Europe Slow Cortical Potential (SCP) neurofeedback is taught by Ute Strehl , who uses a visual to reflect higher arousal (in electro-negative potentials, that is, going up) and lower arousal (in electro-positive potentials, going down). In clinical thresholding, it is important to verbally encourage and reward the patient, especially if they are children.&nbsp;SCP training is a “one size fits all protocol” with the majority of the training done at the vertex. As first developed, the client attempted to produce cortical excitation, a negative DC shift, in the case of ADHD; or cortical inhibition, a positive DC shift, in the case of Epilepsy over the course of many short trials (Birbaumer, 1999; Birbaumer et al., 1994, Kotchoubey et al.,2001 ). More recently SCP training has evolved to train in both negative and positive cortical shifts in the same session with proportions of negative and positive trials dependent on client presentation (Strehl et al., 2006). In clinical interventions, such as epilepsy or ADHD Ute Strehl always implements SCP feedback as a technique in the framework of behavior therapy which is being enumerated by the German statutory health insurance.</span></p><p><span lang="DE">Ute Strehl and colleagues have published extensively in RCT (randomized controlled trials) studies on their work.They have used a slow-wave filter and a 500-millisecond interval moving window. This methodology is available using thought technology equipment and screens (</span><span lang="DE"><a href="http://www.thoughttechnology.com/">www.thoughttechnology.com</a></span><span lang="DE">;&nbsp;<a href="https://www.neurocaregroup.com/neuroconn-technologie.html">https://www.neurocaregroup.com/neuroconn-technologie.html</a>;&nbsp;<a href="https://www.mindmedia.com/">https://www.mindmedia.com/</a>). An important, mandatory feature of SCP feedback is the online artifact control as eye movements and huge EMG actitivty may interfere with EEG activity.</span></p><p><br></p><br><p></p>