<p></p><p><span style="color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem; font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;, sans-serif;">The first
official classification of brainwave bandwidths was introduced by the&nbsp;</span>International Federation of
Societies for Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology in 1974. It is as
follows: delta (0.5 – 4 Hz), theta (4-8 Hz), alpha (8-12<span style="font-size: 1rem;">Hz), beta (12-30 Hz), and gamma
(&gt;30Hz). Hertz (Hz) is the measure of the speed of&nbsp;</span><span style="font-size: 1rem;">brainwaves, noting numerically the
frequency in cycles per second. It has been&nbsp;</span><span style="font-size: 1rem;">hypothesized that the subconscious
and sleep states (dominated by theta and delta) are&nbsp;</span><span style="font-size: 1rem;">linked to the conscious states
(13+ Hz) through the bridge of alpha brain waves (Wise,&nbsp;</span><span style="font-size: 1rem;">2002, p. 53).</span></p><h3><br></h3><p></p><p style="text-align: center;">&nbsp;<img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Brainwaves.png" alt="Brainwaves" width="876" height="581" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom" style="font-size: 1rem;"></p><span style="font-size: 1rem;"><br></span><p></p><p>Brainwaves
are characterized by their speed (frequency), size (amplitude) and shape
(morphology). Frequency is the power or speed of the electrical emissions,
measured in hertz (Hz). Amplitude is the power of the electricity, measured in microvolts. Pure
microvolts is called magnitude and microvolts squared is called amplitude. Here
are some other and important definitions. In EEG analysis and brain region
analysis, it is helpful to think of the frequency as the adjective (i.e. theta
= foggy, groggy, fuzzy, trance-like, day-dreamy, “not all here,”) and the
region that is affected as the noun.</p><h2><a name="_Toc29328765">Important Definitions</a></h2><p><a name="_Toc29328765"><b>Action Potentials -&nbsp;</b>The exchange of potassium (K+), Chloride (Cl-), Calcium (Ca<sup>2</sup>+) and Sodium (Na+) along the dendrite of a neuron, which produces a small battery that maintains a voltage of -60 millivolts.<br></a></p><p><a name="_Toc29328765"></a></p><p><a name="_Toc29328765"><b>Amplitude </b>- the
height or voltage of the waveform. Measured in uV and may be affected by skull
thickness.</a></p><p></p><p><a name="_Toc29328765"><b>Asymmetry -&nbsp;</b>The absence or violation of balance between two hemispheres or quadrants.</a></p><p><a name="_Toc29328765"><b>Bilateral -</b>&nbsp;Occurring on both sides of the EEG; occurring over both hemispheres<br></a></p><p><a name="_Toc29328765"><b>Connectome -&nbsp;</b>The complete description of the structural connectivity (the physical wiring) of an organism’s nervous system.</a></p><p></p><a name="_Toc29328765">

</a><p><a name="_Toc29328765"><b>Coherence</b>- measures wave form similarity
or correlation in a given band between two sites (phase synchrony). Coherence measures</a><a name="_Toc29328765" style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem;"></a></p><p style="display: inline !important;">the stability of phase relationship between any two areas of the brain. Two areas are said to be coherent if they have constant respective relative phase. Coherence in excess is hypercoherence; coherence in deficiency is hypocoherence.</p><p></p><p><a name="_Toc29328765"></a></p><p><a name="_Toc29328765"><b>Comodulation</b> – magnitude
synchrony. The correlation of averaged amplitude between two sites.</a></p><a name="_Toc29328765">

<p><b>Complex – </b>any
morphology that includes more than one shape, such as ‘spike and wave.’</p>

<p><b>Derivation –</b> The
pair of inputs in any channel, such as F3-F7 in a transverse montage</p>

<p><b>Differential
amplifier –</b> Any amplifier that subtracts (differentiates) events at input 2
from input 1.</p><p></p><p><b>Diffuse -</b>&nbsp;Widespread, occurring over a large area of one or both hemispheres</p><p><b>Dominant Frequency</b>&nbsp;(Aka Background Rhythm) - The frequency of EEG activity that occupies the greater part of the recording</p><p></p>

<p><b>Event related
potentials</b> – a measured EEG response to any internal or external event; a
direct result of a given cognitive, sensory or motor event. It is measured in
time (ms) and polarity (positive or negative). The resulting wave pattern and
flow within the brain advises the efficiency of the response.</p>

<p><b>Fast Fourier
Transform</b> – an algorithm to transform the space domain of the analog EEG
wave to the time domain, yielding spectral displays, making it easier to view
the average frequency curve of the EEG record.</p><p></p><p><b>Focal -</b>&nbsp;In a clearly delineated area of the brain as in a focal temporal spike or focal slowing</p><p></p><p></p><p><b>Frequency -</b>&nbsp;Cycles per second. The standard unit of frequency is “Hertz,” which is abbreviated as Hz. 4 Hz is equal to four cycles per second.&nbsp;</p><p><b>Frequency Band -&nbsp;</b>A range of wave frequencies, typically grouped as follows: delta (0-4 Hz), theta (4-8 Hz), alpha (8-12 Hz), low beta (12-15 Hz), mid beta (15-25Hz), high beta (25-40Hz), gamma (40+ Hz).</p><p></p>

<p><b>Frequency Response</b>
– the quantitative measure of the spectrum of the EEG output of a response to
an event that is represented as a frequency and energy chart. Commonly used
with ERPs</p>

<p><b>Gain –</b> the
amplifier setting that show amplification of the raw EEG or the strength of the
signal, which determines current source. Sensitivity is relevant to montage due
to the distance and angle the 2 inputs have in each channel. Since the skull is
not perfectly round and it contains different densities, this must also be
taken into account. Gain and sensitivity are reciprocal.</p>

<p><b>Gaussian Distribution</b>
– The inverted bell-shaped curve that delineates standard deviations from the
mean and shows normal distribution across a sample set.</p></a><p><a name="_Toc29328765"></a><a name="_Toc29328765"></a></p><p></p><p><a name="_Toc29328765"><b>Harmonic -</b>&nbsp;A wave or frequency that is an integral multiple of a given frequency.</a></p><p></p><p><a name="_Toc29328765"><b>Homologous -</b>&nbsp;Two areas at the same region of the brain, mirrored, sharing common function (i.e. C# is the homologue to C4)</a></p><p></p><p></p><p><a name="_Toc29328765"></a></p><p><a name="_Toc29328765"><b>Hypercoherence</b>&nbsp;– when two waveforms are modulated to too high a degree. This is often correlated with inflexibility in behavioral manifestation based upon the functionality of the two sites being measured.</a></p><p><a name="_Toc29328765"><b>Hypocoherence</b>&nbsp;– when two waveforms are too dissimilar. The assumption is that there is disorganization in the functionality between the two sites.</a></p><p></p>

<p><b>Log transform</b> – a
statistical tool used to make data sets less skewed and easier to interpret</p>

<p><b>Joint Time Frequency
Analysis</b> – (JTFA) a transform tool to visualize a signal in the time domain
by plotting the frequency domain as a function of time. </p><p><b>Lateralized -</b>&nbsp;Occurring only over one hemisphere<br></p>

<p><b>Low resolution
electromagnetic tomographic analysis (LORETA)</b> – the use of inverse solution
mathematics to solve the question of what electrical activity occurs at certain
subcortical regions based upon electromagnetic activity in the cortical areas
utilizing the information.</p>

<p><b>Magnitude</b> – the
average of amplitude over time (square root of power). May be affected by skull
thickness.</p>

<p><b>Mean frequency</b> –
the frequency presenting with the most energy within a given spectrum. Can be
overall or within bands. The overall mean frequency is often noted in the 8-12
Hz range. When within the alpha band, it is termed the dominant frequency.</p><p><a name="_Toc29328765"></a></p><p></p><p><a name="_Toc29328765"><b>Multifocal -</b>&nbsp;Having several independent foci as in multifocal paroxysmal spike discharges</a></p><p></p>

<p><b>Phase </b>– The point
at which the waveform changes polarity and then reverses again. Polarity measures the amount of steadiness
of delay between two similar waveforms. They can be in or out of phase. Phase
is measured in polarity, duration and amplitude.</p>

<p><b>Phase lock</b> – when two waveforms oscillate with a stable phase
difference, which may or may not be 1:1.</p>

<p><b>Phase lag</b> - a
measurement of the time delay required for two waves to come into alignment
(peak and trough at the same time)</p>

<p><b>Biphasic / triphasic –</b><b> </b>a complex wave that has more
than one “turn” of polarity (2 or 3, respectively).</p>

<p><b>Polarity – </b>Can be
positive or negative and are represented inversely. Polarity is derived from
the summation of inputs in a derivation.<b></b></p>

<p><b>Power </b>– magnitude
squared. </p>

<p><b>Absolute power</b> – the actual power in the EEG<b></b></p>

<p><b>Power asymmetry</b> ­- measures
the differences in power between homologous sites. It is basically a
measurement of balance in brain activity across hemispheres.</p>

<p><b>Relative power</b> - the
proportion of power in one frequency or frequency band to the total EEG power </p>

<p><b>Reactivity – </b>the
degree that the EEG responds to internal or external stimuli.<b> </b></p>

<p><b>Rhythmicity – </b>The
“perfectness” of a waveform – Rhythmic refers to one that does not shift in
amplitude, frequency or duration. Semi-rhythmic refers to waveforms that are
somewhat rhythmic and irregular.</p>

<p><b>Sensitivity</b> – the
magnification of the viewing or display software. Sensitivity and gain are
reciprocal.</p>

<p><b>Sharp wave -</b> A triangular shaped wave that lasts 70-200 msec and is associated with epileptogenic presentation.</p>

<p><b>Specificity</b> – the
accuracy of the measure derived from the EEG to determine pathology. For
example, transient, interictal EEG behavior is specific to diagnosing epilepsy.</p>

<p><b>Spike</b> – Sharply
shaped wave commonly associated with ‘spike and weave” morphology of
epileptiform activity. Usually with duration of 20 to 70 msec. </p>

<p><b>Volume conduction –</b>
The passage of an electrical current through a conducting substance – in this
case the pyramidal synaptic gaps of the cortex through the scalp.&nbsp; </p>

<p><b>Wavelet
transformation</b> ­– combines time and frequency domain measures in an XY
axis. Used to determine the pattern at which the EEG occurs over time.</p><p></p><p><b>Sub-harmonic -</b>&nbsp;A frequency that is below the fundamental frequency, which divides evenly into the fundamental frequency.</p><p></p><p></p><p><b>Synchrony -&nbsp;</b>A balance that occurs if waves of similar frequency occur simultaneously in different areas of the head. Waves that occur in different channels without a constant time relationship to each other are called asynchronous.<br></p><p><br></p><p></p><h2><a name="_Toc29328766">Slow Cortical Potentials</a></h2>

<p>Slow cortical potentials create
networks and thus allow the brain to turn on and off any network. SCP causes
the binding of networks, which is caused when glia generate a negative wave. This
generation is caused by the ATP<a href="#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" title=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[1]<!--[endif]--></a>
cycle , which is the generation of an electrically negative charge by burning blood
sugar and creating energy (Co2 + water). A positive wave generated by glia is a
calcium channel wave. Glia “primes” an area, which is essentially the act of
intention.</p><div>

<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%">

<!--[endif]-->

<div id="ftn1">

<p><a href="#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" title=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[1]<!--[endif]--></a> <b>Adenosine triphosphate</b>&nbsp;(<b>ATP</b>)
is a complex&nbsp;organic chemical&nbsp;that
provides energy to drive many processes in living&nbsp;cells, e.g. muscle contraction,
nerve impulse propagation, and chemical synthesis. Found in all forms of life,
ATP is often referred to as the "molecular unit of&nbsp;currency" of
intracellular&nbsp;energy transfer.<sup>[2]</sup>&nbsp;When consumed in&nbsp;metabolic&nbsp;processes, it converts
either to&nbsp;adenosine diphosphate&nbsp;(ADP) or to&nbsp;adenosine monophosphate&nbsp;(AMP)</p><p></p><p>&nbsp;</p>

<p>&nbsp;</p>

<h2><a name="_Toc29328767">Delta</a></h2>

<h3><a name="_Toc29328768">Healthy Delta</a></h3>

<p><b><u>Delta rhythm</u></b> is a
brainwave that is most commonly seen in deep dreamless sleep (NREM 4) in
healthy adults and children. It is also a dominant brainwave in infants, since
the earliest stages of life are times of, one, a lot of sleep, and two,
neurogenesis and angiogenesis. Young brains form, develop and grow with the
production of delta. Although
usually thought of as being associated with sleep and parts of the brain being
“off line,” taking up nourishment, delta activity is always present in normal
EEG’s of any age.&nbsp; It is generated cortically and inhibited by afferent
stimulation of the cortex.&nbsp;</p>

<p>There
is a substantial QEEG literature relating delta power to higher-order mental
functions in normal awake humans.&nbsp; Increased delta activity has been
observed in normal subjects performing calculations, taking reaction time
tests, and thinking abstract thoughts.&nbsp; Delta is thought to have a functional
role in allocating attention to internal mental representations, by suppressing
extraneous cortical inputs and facilitating internal concentration. Anterior
lead voltage in awake subjects is 20%-30% delta.&nbsp; &nbsp;</p><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 1rem;">&nbsp;</span><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Healthy%20Delta.png" alt="Healthy Delta" width="508" height="381" class="atto_image_button_middle" style="font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p></p><p><br></p></div></div><h3>Unhealthy Delta</h3><p style="text-align: left;">&nbsp; &nbsp;<img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Unhealthy%20Delta.png" alt="Unhealthy Delta" width="1087" height="540" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom">&nbsp;<br></p><p></p><h3><a name="_Toc29328769"><br></a></h3><h3><a name="_Toc29328769">Pathological
High Amplitude Delta</a></h3>

When
delta is pathological, it represents cognitive impairment or of brain damage. Delta
excesses often correlated with damage to the white matter (the white matter
axons are exclusively excitatory). Focal&nbsp;delta activity should always be
considered abnormal, possibly indicating a lesion, and should result in
referral of the patient to a neurologist for further evaluation.&nbsp; Generalized
background slowing indicates diffuse cerebral dysfunction, which, similar to
focal slowing, is also not specific as to cause. Delta can indicate the effects
of sedative centrally acting medications, neurodegenerative disorders, a
widespread neurodevelopmental disorder, hydrocephalus, metabolic or toxic
encephalopathy, CNS infectious disorders such as meningoencephalitis, traumatic
brain injury, hypoxia, or anoxia. The delta band may be composed of delta rhythm
activity (usually over 75 µV and rather rhythmic), slow cortical&nbsp;potentials (DC shifts) at
.5 Hz and below, and also artifact (e.g., eye movement, glossokinetic artifact,
electrodermal or sweat artifact).&nbsp;<br><br><p></p><p></p><h4>Focal Delta in a 12-year-old girl with complications from an
anoxic head injury</h4><p style="text-align: left;"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Focal%20Delta.png" alt="Focal Delta" width="930" height="796" style="text-align: center; " class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle"></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p></p><p><br></p><p><span style="color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.286rem;">Focal Delta in a 12-year-old girl with complications from an
anoxic head injury</span><br></p><p></p><p style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: 1rem;">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></p><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 1rem;">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Focal%20Delta%202.png" alt="Focal Delta 2" width="711" height="447" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle" style="font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p></p><p></p><p>An excess of delta
activity may be seen in the records of individuals with learning disabilities,
Alzheimer’s disease, demyelination, toxic or metabolic disturbances, edema, and
with aging there is frequently an increase of delta waves, especially in the
left hemisphere.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p><h3>FIRDA</h3><p>Pathological delta patterns, known as FIRDA (Frontal
Intermittent Rhythmic Delta Activity) and OIRDA (Occipital Intermittent
Rhythmic Delta Activity) are abnormal and pathological delta patterns. FIRDA is
a transient, rhythmic slow wave pattern over the anterior EEG leads, that
indicates cerebral lesions, circulation infarcts, stroke victims, and various
metabolic disturbances.</p><p></p><p>FIRDA and OIRDA (Occipital Intermittent Rhythmic Delta Activity) are the same condition at different stages of brain development. &nbsp;This can be a deep near midline disturbance, or a diffuse anoxic/hypoxia/metabolic issue as the common etiology.</p><div><span style="font-size: 1rem;">Like other issues projecting to the surface via the cingulate, the pathways in early life are more restricted to posterior cingulate, as the anterior portions are not yet myelinated, finally getting ‘hooked up’ in the late teens or early 20s. Thus, "h</span><span style="font-size: 1rem;">edonic theta" in infants is posterior, and in adults (where it is more difficult to elicit) it is frontal at the midline in a dopamine rich distribution.</span></div><div><br></div><div>FIRDA requires the development of projections to the anterior cortical areas which are not available to the very young who can only make it occipitally (OIRDA)</div><div><br></div><div></div><br><p></p><h4>FIRDA
Pattern in an elderly woman with metabolic encephalopathy</h4><p></p><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 1rem;">&nbsp;</span><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/FIRDA%20pattern.png" alt="FIRDA Pattern" width="645" height="471" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle" style="font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p></p><p><br></p><p><span style="color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.286rem;">Global Delta in Head Injury, Deprivation of Oxygen for Prolonged
Period of Time</span><br></p><p style="text-align: left;"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Delta%20and%20TBI.png" alt="Delta and TBI" width="1000" height="563" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle" style="font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;"></p><p></p><p><br></p><p><a name="_Toc29328770" style="color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.715rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Pathological
Low Amplitude Delta</a><br></p>

<p>Decreased delta power in
quantitative EEGs has been found to be associated sometimes with complicated
depression, chronic migraine, closed posterior head/neck injury, alcoholism,
and a subgroup of patients who display lack of control over repetitive thoughts
and behaviors and minor motor symptoms (Gerez-Malo &amp; Tell-Valdes, 1996).&nbsp;Low voltage delta can also
indicate an old injury or a series of injuries (such is the case with
professional athletes (soccer, rugby, and football players) who take many blows
to the head.</p><h4><br></h4><h4>QEEG of a football player who sustained many concussions and blows to the head. He
experiences short term memory impairment</h4><p style="text-align: center;"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/blue%20brain.png" alt="blue brain" width="723" height="942" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle"><br></p><p></p><h3><a name="_Toc29328771"><br></a></h3><h3><a name="_Toc29328771">Pathological
Delta: Concussion and Mild Traumatic Brain Injury</a></h3>

<p><a name="_Hlk25008071">Often in a concussion, the </a><span lang="EN-CA">initial impact will lead the brain to
release the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate at the areas of damage, which
causes a rapid depolarization of the local neurons. After this, the axonal
sodium/potassium pump goes into overdrive to rebalance ion/voltage imbalance,
more ATP (energy) is required,</span> there is a <span lang="EN-CA">jump in glucose metabolism, and </span>e<span lang="EN-CA">xtracellular swelling starts, reducing blood flow.
Then the increase in metabolism with reduced blood flow causes an energy crisis
in the cell. Cell is unable to carry out regular activity due to lack of energy
and</span> o<span lang="EN-CA">ften entire cell groups will go dormant to
preserve themselves. </span><span lang="EN-CA">This is one cause of a low voltage EEG. </span></p>

<p>It is very
likely that, after a career of having hard knocks to the skull, a client’s
brain will form scar tissue at the sites of the accident (after initially
experiencing a state of inflammation). If the inflammation is not able to
properly heal the brain—which is its’ function—then the brain will ultimately
learn to handle the inflammation by altering cellular structures to form tougher
tissues, which would consequentially prevent blood perfusion at the sites of
the injury and prevent the slower brainwaves of delta and theta
from being read from the surface. Among the symptoms that are commonly reported
in patients with TBI and mild TBI include impairment in attention, memory,
psychomotor speed, and executive functions.</p>

<p>Some of the symptoms the client may experience as a result of his
head injury include: </p>

<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<!--[endif]-->Difficulty figuring out how to do new things</p>

<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<!--[endif]-->Disorganization</p>

<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<!--[endif]-->Difficulty completing activities in a reasonable amount of time</p>

<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<!--[endif]-->Slower learning than is normal</p>

<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<!--[endif]-->Becoming easily angered or frustrated</p>

<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<!--[endif]-->Difficulty with word finding</p>

<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<!--[endif]-->Extreme sensitivity to light and/or sounds</p>

<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<!--[endif]-->Difficulty with concentration or focus</p>

<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<!--[endif]-->Easily distracted</p>

<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<!--[endif]-->Spacing out</p>

<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<!--[endif]-->Headaches</p>

<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<!--[endif]-->Forgetfulness</p>

<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<!--[endif]-->Impulsivity, impatience, risk taking, rudeness, social impropriety</p>

<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<!--[endif]-->Fatigue</p>

<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<!--[endif]-->Difficulty with balance, dizziness, clumsiness and even
incontinence</p>

<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<!--[endif]-->Problems reading</p>

<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<!--[endif]-->Confusion with puzzles, directions, and telling left from right</p>

<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<!--[endif]-->Difficulty understanding others</p>

<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<!--[endif]-->Difficulty switching from one task to another, especially when
unexpected.</p>

<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<!--[endif]-->Getting lost easily</p>

<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<!--[endif]-->Feeling fidgety</p>

<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->·&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<!--[endif]-->Emotional difficulties (depression, fear, nightmares)</p><p><br></p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Dopamine%20System.png" alt="Dopamine System" width="520" height="478" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_left"><br><p></p><p><a name="_Hlk530947264">Groups with a delta deficit include cocaine addicts, ADD, subtypes of OCD, and schizophrenia—all of whom have problems with frontal cortical regulation of attention or impulsive behavior, as well as the processing of extraneous stimuli.</a>&nbsp; There is evidence suggesting a significant functional relationship of the delta rhythm to the mesotelencephalic dopamine (DA) projection.&nbsp;</p><p><span style="font-size: 1rem;">The
estimated location of the major site for delta generation in midline and the
anterior frontal cortex corresponds with the location of the main cortical
terminal field of the mesotelencephalic DA projection.&nbsp;</span><br></p>

<h3><a name="_Toc29328772"><br></a></h3><h3><a name="_Toc29328772"><br></a></h3><h3><a name="_Toc29328772"><br></a></h3><h3><a name="_Toc29328772"><br></a></h3><h3><a name="_Hlk28339132"></a><a name="_Toc29328772">Psychodynamic Delta</a>
</h3>



<p>The basis of my
conceptualization of EEG, which has formed from the works of many seminal
authors and scholars, is as follows: Delta (1-4Hz) is the collective
unconscious, a low frequency, high amplitude brainwave that is connected with
psi-phenomena, pre-cognitive abilities, connection with nature, and deep
emotional intelligence (Wise, 1995, 2002). Delta is the rhythm of the heart.</p><p>Delta arises out of the cosmic
unconscious; Wise (1995, 2002) believed that delta was pronounced in healers,
seers, or traumatized individuals. That is, the traumatized child may rely more
heavily on premonition or gut instinct, to prevent being abused. Those with
higher amplitude delta, according to Wise, may be hypervigilant or even have
extra-sensory perception. Delta is the deep primal intuition, instinctual
action, empathy and radar, allowing us to glean information that might not be
available via consciousness (Wise, 1995, 2002).</p>

<h2><a name="_Toc29328773">Theta</a></h2>

<p>Theta is a
frequency of 4-8Hz that emanates from the thalamus to the cortex and back
again, it is a thalamo-cortical frequency and arrives in states of trance, deep
meditation, drowsiness, under hypnosis and at the top of sleep cycle for
healthy adults (REM sleep) during dream state. Theta also arrives in non rapid
eye movement sleep (NREM 2 and NREM 3) at the midline and is part of what is
called a “K-complex.” &nbsp;</p>Otherwise, healthy theta is seen in children under
9 years of age and is linked up to the visual gestalt in infants. Theta is
similar to delta in that it is indicative of neurogenesis in the infant and
child. From an empirical perspective, theta is one of the main rhythms of the
hippocampus, where it is linked to memory encoding, spatial memory, and
cognitive processes (Gorochowski, 2009; Stam, 2006). This has been found in
many studies using rats. However, from intracranially implanted electrodes in
seizure patients, Cantero&nbsp;<i>et
al.</i>&nbsp;(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theta_wave#refCantero2003">2003</a>) found that oscillations in the 4–7&nbsp;Hz frequency range could be
recorded from both the hippocampus and neocortex in humans, whereas previously
it was not known if humans created hippocampal theta, as rats do. The
hippocampal oscillations were associated with REM sleep and the transition from
sleep to waking, and came in brief bursts, usually less than a second long.
Cortical&nbsp;theta
oscillations, arising from the thalamus and other subcortical structures, were
observed during the transition from sleep and during quiet wakefulness;
however, the authors were unable to find any correlation between hippocampal
and cortical theta waves, and concluded that the two processes are probably controlled
by independent mechanisms, however they are likely related. Cortical
theta is generated from the thalamus and the nucleus accumbens in the forebrain.
Frontal
midline theta, as seen in brief bursts on memory retrieval tasks as the nucleus
accumbens provides acetylcholine to the temporal lobe's limbic structures via
the diagonal band of Broca, which is connected to the amygdala/hippocampus
complex, allowing rhythmicity (Gunkelman, 2014).&nbsp; Memory uses theta as a carrier wave, upon
which other, faster frequencies can ride; the nesting of faster, gamma waves
upon theta waves promotes short term memory (DeRidder, 2014; Klimesh, Sauseng,
&amp; Hanslmeyer, 2007). According to Gorochowski (2009), theta modulates
gamma, which allows for the construction (and reconstruction) of a
low-frequency-modulating-phase.<p></p><p><a name="_Toc29328774" style="color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.715rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Healthy Theta</a></p><p></p><p style="text-align: center;"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/HEalthy%20Theta.png" alt="Healthy Theta" width="610" height="407" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom" style="font-size: 1rem;"></p>



Theta
rhythm is a normal finding during drowsiness in the adult EEG. Theta, may be
seen at the onset of sleep as the alpha rhythm slows with drowsiness. Theta is
also the brainwave state of dreams. As earlier
mentioned, the slow waves that occur here correspond to rapid eye movement
(REM), which is thought to be healing, developing, and rejuvenating (Crick
&amp; Michison, 1983; Evans, 1983; Ornstein, 1986; Oswald, 1980; Shaffery,
Oksenberg, Marks, Speciale, Mihailoff, &amp;
Roffwarg, 1998; Siegel, 2010). In 1953, the hypnogogic brainwave state
was discovered, consisting of a period of several minutes where the mind is overtaken with image fragments or short
dramas. At that time, this hypnogogic state was dubbed “theta” and was seen in
asynchronous oscillations of 5-8 hertz (i.e., 5 to 8 waveforms over the course
of 1 second) occurring over the cortex of the brain. Rhythmic or “synchronous” theta was found to&nbsp;<span style="font-size: 1rem;">be
present in the awake raw EEG, increasing as subjects got drowsy or started
daydreaming (Ulrich, 2013, pp. 38-39).</span><p></p>

<p>From an
empirical brainwave perspective, the brain wave
patterns of the dreamer have been identified as asynchronous theta and REM
sleep state, which is activated endogenously in the dreaming state. Their
function, according to Winson (2002) is to further process the memory contents
of the past while the individual is asleep. The hippocampus is foundational for
its generation in sleep, which allows for the mapping of the sensorimotor,
temporal, and environmental space (Bland &amp; Oddie, 2001). This mapping may
be linked to the storage of procedural memory, since the right parietal
cortical areas (housing the right hippocampus and the medial temporal lobe
diencephalon) are activated in spatial and mental imagery exercises (Schore,
2003; Solms &amp; Turnbull, 2002). This is the same area as that which becomes
activated both in dreaming and in the infant’s breast-feeding (Winson, 2002).</p><p>Theta
generation has been linked to the replenishing of important neuronal
proteins, for cell and synaptic growth, as well as the production of growth
hormones, neurochemicals, neurotransmitters, and neuromodulators (Shaffery et
al., 1998). Furthermore, REM sleep has been linked to the development of the
hippocampi—the seat of learning and memory (Lewin
&amp; Glaubman, 1975; Shaffery et al., 1998).<a name="_Hlk517070865"> Theta is a rejuvenating brainwave, responsible for
neurogenesis and healing. It is these slow waves that the infant and child
spend much of their time in, as these are essential to the building of
networks, as well as feelings of safe, calm, and protectedness.</a></p><h2><a name="_Toc29328775">Pathological Theta</a></h2><p><a name="_Toc29328775"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Unhealthy%20Theta.png" alt="unhealthy theta" width="1008" height="540" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_left" style="text-align: center;"></a></p><p style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Toc29328775"><br></a></p><p></p><br><p></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p></p><p>Unhealthy theta can mean many different
things in EEG. From a clinical perspective, theta can indicate concussion or
head trauma, as well as attention deficit disorder, distractibility, foggy
thinking, inability to sequence tasks, forgetfulness, or daydreamy-ness. One
with excess theta might be accused of being a “space-cadet.” &nbsp;Having too much theta with eyes open would
cause one to feel unable to focus on the task at hand for a long period of
time. Any "theta band"
activity may be slowed thalamo-cortical alpha or limbically generated rhythmic
slow activity (theta), as stated in Steriade's 1990 IFCN position paper (in the articles folder for this chapter).</p><p><br></p><h4>Post
Concussive Syndrome in a 17-year old Soccer Athlete, excessive occipital theta
(Z-score summary map)</h4><p></p><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 1rem;">&nbsp;</span><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Post%20Concussive%20Syndrome.png" alt="Post Concussive Syndrome" width="720" height="955" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle" style="font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p></p><p></p><h4>Excessive Theta at the right posterior temporal lobe (Eyes
Closed)</h4>

<h4>&nbsp;(Raw Data)</h4><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Excessive%20Theta.png" alt="Excessive Theta" width="717" height="1108" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_left"><p>When there is a
lack of blood flow and oxygen to the area, there is often a consequential
slowing of alpha at the area, sometimes into the theta range. As an area
degrades, sometimes the alpha slows considerably below the normal alpha band
(i.e. less than 8hz). A slowed alpha can represent a compromise of blood flow,
and consequentially oxygen, to an area, which will lead to ischemia. The dip in
alpha frequency will indicate how severe the ischemia is (Classen and Foreman,
2012). Theta will arise with grey matter damage, which can be resultant of a
trauma (such as a blow to the head), a vascular anomaly, an aneurism or
structural anomaly (like the jarring of the cerebro-cervical juncture in a car
accident).</p><br><p></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><h3><br></h3><p><br></p><p><br></p><h3>Theta and Vascular Dementia</h3><p></p><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 1rem;">&nbsp;</span><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Theta%20and%20Vascular%20Dementia.png" alt="Theta and Vascular Dementia" width="835" height="661" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle" style="font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p></p><p><a name="_Toc29328776" style="color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.715rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Psychodynamic Theta</a><br></p>

<p>From Wise’s
perspective (1995, 2002), theta is the subconscious, akin to Jung’s personal
unconscious. It is the individual’s repressed materials, the abuses, the
traumas, the trials, the tribulations, and the terrors. Theta is also the
reverie, the deep longings and wishes, all those things that we push down, to
be forgotten in our subconscious. Theta gives these deeply repressed memories
life at the top of the sleep cycle in the form of dreams. Wise (1995, 2002)
notes that theta can also be a repository for suppressed creativity and
inspiration; she felt that theta was particularly strong during peak
experiences, spiritual insights, and high-functioning brain states (such as
deep meditation). She thought that theta brainwave states—which occur predominantly
when we dream—were affiliated with the subconscious (a match for Jung’s
personal unconscious): underlying interpretations and meanings that we are not
privy to, but which we create—those that reside under the threshold of our
awareness.&nbsp; The personal unconscious is
the place where we bury our shadows and from which our behaviors unconsciously
emerge.&nbsp; </p><h3><a name="_Toc29328777">Lambda</a></h3>

<p>Lambda is a triangular shaped wave
at the occipital leads that represents visual tracking. It’s a visual, event
related potential that has to do with visual searching—it is like an “aha” when
you see something. Lambda is called lambdoid or lambdotal if your eyes are
closed.&nbsp; You can see repeated sharp
transients in the back of the head in an adult that is reading or watching a
movie. If a person is put on a task reading and you see theta or higher
frequency delta in the back of the head, do not interpret it as a problem,
because it might be a lambda wave form showing up. Lambda waves are found
mostly in patients 6 months to 10 years. </p><h4>Lambda in a client watching a movie</h4><p style="text-align: center;"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/LAmbda.png" alt="Lambda" width="764" height="515" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle" style="font-size: 1rem;"></p><p></p><p><br></p><p></p><h3>Lambda in a qEEG</h3><p style="text-align: center;"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Lambda%20in%20a%20QEEG.png" alt="Lambda in a QEEG" width="705" height="480" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle" style="font-size: 1rem;"></p><p></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><a name="_Toc29328778" style="color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 2.143rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">POSTS (Positive Occipital Sharp Transients of Sleep)</a><br></p><h2><a name="_Toc29328778" style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"><ul style="display: inline !important;"><li style="display: inline !important;"><span style="font-size: 1rem;">POSTS looks like lambda except they occur in sleep. This morphological signature</span></li></ul></a><a name="_Toc29328778" style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem; font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;, sans-serif;"><ul style="display: inline !important;"><li style="display: inline !important;">may also appear in trains and give the false appearance of rhythmic epileptiform activity. This is a normal finding and does not suggest clinical significance.</li></ul></a></h2><p style="text-align: center;"><a name="_Toc29328778"><img src="data:image/png;base64,[encoded data, 383408 characters]" alt=""><br></a></p><h2><a name="_Toc29328778"><br></a></h2><h2><a name="_Toc29328778">Alpha</a></h2>

<p>Alpha is a
frequency of 8-12 Hz, responsible as the idling state of the brain. The
generation of alpha is cortico-cortical processes (Stam, 2006, p. 49), as well
as a cortico-thalamic process (DeRidder, 2014; Gunkelman, 2014). That means
that alpha is generated from the cortex, as well as the thalamus. Although you
are relaxed when in a predominantly alpha state, you are in the process of
taking packets of data with each alpha wavelet (DeRidder, 2014).&nbsp; </p>

<h3><a name="_Toc29328779">Healthy Alpha</a></h3>

Alpha is a relaxed and focused space,
responsible for the state of flow, being in the zone, and creating. Alpha is
the most obvious waveform in the raw EEG, typically showing itself as large
amplitude, synchronous waveforms, usually emanating from the occipital regions
of the head, regions known as O1, Oz, and O2. Alpha reflects perceptual
anticipation of forthcoming stimuli (DeRidder, 2014). High amplitude alpha
indicates an internally oriented state (i.e., more difficult to perceive an
external trigger), and low amplitude alpha indicates an externally oriented
state (i.e., easy to perceive external stimulus) (DeRidder, 2014). Typically,
when an individual closes their eyes, the body is signaled to relax and alpha
appears in the EEG; when one opens one’s eyes, alpha attenuates. If alpha
remains in the EEG for a while after the&nbsp;<span style="font-size: 1rem;">eyes open,
there is a likelihood the individual suffers from brain fog, inability to stay
focused, difficulty sequencing thoughts, and difficulty planning; if alpha is
imperceptible with closed eyes, the individual typically suffers from a trauma,
such as PTSD (Swingle, 2010).</span><br>

<a name="_Hlk15366181">Alpha
has been noted as the brainwave that is responsible for daydreaming,
fantasizing, visualization (relaxed, detached awareness), seen heavily in pot
smokers, dreamers, poets, and individuals who work in flow states (such as
energy healers).</a>Alpha
peak frequency is synonymous with posterior dominant rhythm (PDR)
and is the subject’s “idling rate”; everyone has their own dominant alpha
frequency, which typically falls between 9 Hz and 11 Hz. Average alpha peak
frequency is 10 to 10.5 Hz. An 11Hz alpha peak frequency indicates a mind that
is capable of processing data quickly, or quicker than most. Put simply, the brain
has the capability to crunch 11 packets of data per second (the thalamus is
gating at 11hz),an apt analogy is that of a camera with a fast shutter speed.
The speed indicates the capability of the photographer to get a clear, high
quality shot. A fast alpha peak frequency is a sign of a facile mind that has
the capability to process data quickly. In the case of ruminations or
obsessions, this asset can work&nbsp;<span style="font-size: 1rem;">towards unwanted focus or
preoccupation, although it is not the cause of the symptoms, but rather a
facilitator of fast processing.</span><h3><a name="_Toc29328780">Dual Alpha Peak</a></h3>

<p>When someone
has two separate alpha peak frequencies you see fusiform alpha. Fusiform alpha
is a beat frequency that is the blending of two separate frequencies. This
mixing of frequencies will give you an interesting morphology that looks
monomorphic, or one shape. Two alpha peaks has been observed within my own
clinic as a marker of depression or tendencies of low mood and affective
disorders.</p><h4>Spectra of Dual Alpha Peaks</h4><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 1rem;">&nbsp;</span><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/DUal%20ALpha%20Peaks.png" alt="Dual Alpha Peaks" width="629" height="548" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle" style="font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;"></p><p></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p></p><h4 style="text-align: left;">Raw EEG of Fusiform Alpha (Eyes Closed)</h4><p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Raw%20Fusiform%20Alpha.png" alt="Raw Fusiform Alpha" width="415" height="835" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_left" style="text-align: left;"></p><p style="text-align: left;">Alpha rhythm often comes on when someone closes their eyes; the
clinicians should be able to get a reliable alpha reading in 20-30 seconds. Fast alpha (above 11 hz) correlates with good semantic
and declarative memory performance). It is not linearly related to IQ, but is
a component of it. </p>

<p style="text-align: left;">The quickening
of someone’s alpha has been thought of as brain brightening. This enhances
memory and semantics. Alpha is your sampling rate. If we see 10 peaks per
second, you have 10 hz alpha. You have a higher resolution if you have faster
alpha. You have crisper, sharper perceptions if you have fast alpha. The alpha rhythm is considered
to be made up of two separate functional components.&nbsp; Low alpha band (8-10
Hz): associated with general or global attention, and high alpha band (10-13
Hz): reflecting directed or task specific attention.&nbsp; </p>

<p style="text-align: left;">Both
Sterman et al. (1996) and Klimesch et al. (1993) found that individuals with
good (versus poor) memories have stronger desynchronization in the lower alpha
band during the encoding and retrieval of memory.&nbsp; Crawford et al. (1995)
found more lower band alpha power in subjects whose attention was more
distractible.&nbsp; When sleep deprivation occurs, it has been found to mostly
affect low alpha (and theta), negatively influencing general attention
(Sterman, 1999) so that excitation is blunted and the frequent return to an
inattentive idling state (Hammond, 2018).&nbsp;</p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p></p><h3 style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Toc29328781"><br></a></h3><h3 style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Toc29328781"><br></a></h3><h3 style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Toc29328781">Alpha Slowing</a></h3>

<p style="text-align: left;">When there is a
lack of blood flow and oxygen to the area, there is often a consequential slowing
of alpha at the area. As the area degrades, sometimes the alpha slows
considerably below the band. But this depends on how severe the ischemia is
(Classen and Foreman, 2012). If the slowing is in the theta range, if can be
due to a trauma, a vascular anomaly, an aneurism or structural anomaly.</p><p style="text-align: left;"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Slow%20Alpha.png" alt="SLow Alpha" width="1279" height="718" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle" style="font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;"></p><p></p><p></p><h3 style="text-align: left;"><br></h3><h3 style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Toc29328782">Background Rhythm of 6 Hz</a> 
 
 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 
 
 

 
 
in a 3-year-old girl with anoxic brain damage&nbsp;</h3><p style="text-align: center;">&nbsp;<img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Slow%20ALpha%202.png" alt="Slow Alpha 2" width="655" height="1105" style="text-align: center;" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle"></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><h4 style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Toc29328783">Chart of the common speed of alpha rhythm
(“AR”) in pediatrics and the elderly (alpha rhythm matures around age 10)</a></h4><p style="text-align: center;">&nbsp;<img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Frequency%20Chart.png" alt="Frequency Chart" width="800" height="1021" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle" style="font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Hlk15366419">The
mean adult frequency was found to be 10.5Hz, and is slightly higher in females
than in males (Brazier and Finesinger, 1944; Petersen &amp; Eeg-Olofsson, 1971).&nbsp;
Alpha stabilizes at its final peak by the ages of 10 (Niedermeyer, 1999b),
although earlier studies have tracked its stability as high as the age 15
(Peterson &amp; Eeg-Olofsson, 1971)</a>.&nbsp;
Mean alpha below 9 Hz is significantly low, and a mean frequency below 8 Hz “is
always abnormal, usually suggestive of a diffuse encephalopathy” (Markand,
1990, p. 181) (e.g., with systemic metabolic disorders like renal or hepatic
disorders, hypothyroidism, hypoglycemia, or with cerebral insults).&nbsp; A
general rule (Hughes, 1994) is that anyone from age 8 through centenarians
should have an alpha background rhythm of at least 8 Hz.&nbsp;Wu and Liu (1995)
only found 1% of healthy adults to have a dominant rhythm of 8 Hz. Occasionally
a sub-harmonic to alpha is found at ½ the individual’s alpha frequency, and
occasionally a fast alpha variant will walk into your clinic, at 13+ Hz. You
will know it is alpha, because this 14-15 Hz rhythm will block to eye opening,
and it is only found in about 3.6% of the population (Brazier &amp; Finesinger,
1944).&nbsp;Above average
mean alpha levels may suggest hypervigilance, high intelligence (Gasser, Von
Lucadou-Muller Verleger, &amp; Bacher, 1983) good memory (Klimesch, Doppelmayr,
Schimke, &amp; Pachinger, 1996), and a fast processing rate.&nbsp; Worst case,
these are the individuals who can spin into delusional thinking and flights of
fancy, where their grip on reality is loose. </p>

<p style="text-align: left;">The
alpha rhythm may also increase with increased body temperature (Gundel, 1984)
or hyperthyroidism.&nbsp; The 10-14 Hz range seemed to be important during
intellectual activity.&nbsp; Alpha frequency is positively correlated to
cognitive performance, speed of information processing, and is significantly
higher in individuals with good memory performance (Klimesch, 1999).</p>

<h3 style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Toc29328785">Alpha Amplitude</a></h3>

<p style="text-align: left;">The highest
amplitude of alpha is found in the occipital area and is generally below 50
microvolts (µV).&nbsp; Amplitudes of 20-60 µV have been found in 66% of people,
while amplitudes below 20 µV are found in 28%, and above 60 µV in 6% (Simonova
et al., 1967).&nbsp; Children have higher amplitudes than adults (50-60 µV) and
9% of children (ages 1-15) have amplitudes of 100 µV or higher (Petersen &amp;
Eeg-Olofsson, 1971).&nbsp; </p><p style="text-align: left;">An inverse
relationship exists between the frequency of alpha and alpha amplitude (Brazier
&amp; Finesinger, 1944).&nbsp; About 7%-9% of adults have a “low-voltage
record,” consisting of amplitudes under 20 µV (Markand, 1990), which may or may
not display alpha activity.</p>

<p style="text-align: left;">Klimesch (1999) has found that upper band alpha power (10-12Hz) decreases
during semantic processing (i.e. talking)&nbsp; and theta power increases
during episodic memory retrieval. Klimesch (1999) also found that a low
theta/alpha ratio during resting state predicts good cognitive and memory
performance, while , while under task, a large increase in theta power
(synchronization) and a significant decrease in alpha power (desynchronization)
is associated with good cognitive/memory performance.&nbsp; In relation to
theta activity, it should be noted that Klimesch finds that theta
synchronization occurs in a narrow frequency band in the range of the peak
theta frequency, whereas there is a second, inefficient form of theta
synchronization associated with large, but irregular activity.&nbsp; Klimesch
(1999) concluded:</p><p style="text-align: left;"><i>Large scale alpha synchronization
blocks information processing because very large populations of neurons
oscillate with the same phase and frequency.&nbsp; In contrast, alpha
desynchronization reflects actual cognitive processes because different
neuronal networks start to oscillate at different frequencies and with
different phases (p. 190).</i></p><p style="text-align: left;">Synchronous,
persistent alpha is expected with eyes closed—this is effectively the brain
“twiddling its thumbs.“ However, when eyes are open, alpha ought to diminish.
If it does not, especially if it is predominantly seen on one side, the individual
ought to consult a neurologist.</p>

<h3 style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Toc29328786">Alpha Asymmetry</a></h3><p style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: 1rem;">When
alpha frequency is slower by 1 Hz or more (and localized in one hemisphere), it
may indicate a focal abnormality (Markand, 1990) warranting a neurological
consult; a difference of 1.5 Hz or more is particularly worrisome (Duffy, et
al., 1989).&nbsp; &nbsp;Any hemispheric amplitude&nbsp;difference in alpha between
the two sides of more than 50% is considered significant (Hughes, 1994), Furthermore,
because alpha rhythm is usually of higher amplitude on the right side (for
right-handed people), a decrease of even 35% on the right may be significant
(Duffy et al., 1989).&nbsp; Lastly, Frontal asymmetries in alpha have been
found to be significant markers in depression.</span></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><h3 style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Toc29328787">Alpha
Peak Frequency</a></h3>

<p style="text-align: left;">Alpha
is considered the predominant idling rhythm in adults, however theta is the
predominant rhythm in children until ages 10 - 13, when alpha becomes the more
predominant rhythm. Slow brainwave activity (&lt;8hz) continues to decline in
the EEG until the late twenties. Alpha peak frequency speeds up as be age: 6 Hz
at one year of age, 8 Hz range by age 3, reaching 10 Hz by about age 10
(Niedermeyer, 1999b).&nbsp; </p>

<p style="text-align: left;">Beginning
in the later 50's, there is a gradual decrease in alpha frequency, most likely
due to pathology such as diminished vascular flow to the brain.&nbsp; However,
alpha rhythm will remain above 9 Hz in healthy elderly subjects who do not have
systemic or neurologic problems (Markand, 1990).&nbsp; Katz and Horowitz (1982)
reported an average alpha frequency of 9.8 Hz in individuals in their 70's,
while Hubbard et al. (1976) found a mean alpha frequency of 8.6 in 10
individuals between the ages of 100 and 105 years of age.&nbsp; Alpha frequency
is lowered in dementia patients.</p><p style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Hlk525201212">Alpha peak frequency is the subject’s “idling rate”; every adult
has their own dominant alpha frequency, which typically falls between 9 Hz and
11 Hz. Average alpha peak frequency is about 9 to 9.5 Hz. A 10Hz alpha peak
frequency indicates a mind that is capable of processing 10 packets of data per
second—an apt analogy is that of a camera with a fast shutter speed. The speed
indicates the capability of the photographer to get a clear, high quality shot.</a> A fast alpha
peak frequency is a sign of a facile mind that has the capability to process
data quickly. In the case of ruminations or obsessions, this asset can work
towards unwanted focus or preoccupation, although it is not the cause of the
symptoms, but rather a facilitator of fast processing.</p><h3 style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Toc29328788">Alpha Blocking</a></h3>

<p style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Hlk529261354">Alpha is thought to be the brainwave that enacts feelings
of being in the “flow,” of being in the “zone,” or of being present. During the
production of alpha, we generally are fixed on one task, meditation, or sight.
We are typically not dealing with thoughts that would otherwise busy the mind
(i.e. monkey mind type of thoughts). When someone closes their eyes and does
not produce alpha it is considered alpha blocking, which can indicate an
inability to relax and calm down. I will often explain the inability or
resistance to producing alpha a “white knuckling” with eyes closed—or a
vigilance that remains on, in fear of letting down.</a><a name="_Toc525053829">
In cases like these, the ability to calm, to self sooth, the quiet otherwise
troublesome thoughts, might not come as easily as it would to one’s peers</a>. </p><h3 style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Toc29328789">Temporal
Lobe Alpha</a></h3>

<p style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Hlk39003886"></a><a name="_Hlk523168276"></a><a name="_Hlk526143762"></a><a name="_Hlk525136443">The
appearance of alpha at the temporal leads is most easily seen in a Laplacian
montage. “Excess Temporal Lobe Alpha” (TLA) classification is used when
evidence exists that the temporal lobe generates abnormal amounts of alpha. TLA
suggests frontal lobe disengagement which results in temporal lobe idling and suggests
an affective perceptual problem, prosodic comprehension difficulty, and even a
deficit in spatial reasoning</a>. </p>

<p style="text-align: left;">It is important to accurately determine the source of the alpha
and to rule out alpha contamination from posterior regions. Alpha contamination
occurs when occipital and parietal alpha spreads into EEG sensors placed in the
temporal lobe region, creating the illusion of temporal lobe and frontal lobe
alpha (due to ear reference contamination) (Hammond &amp; Gunkelman, 2001). </p><h3 style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Toc29328790">Trauma Marker Alpha</a></h3>

<p style="text-align: left;">With eyes open, when
we see the appearance of alpha gating at T6, which has been found to be a
common finding in soldiers who have even been in active combat. TLA suggests
frontal lobe disengagement which results in temporal lobe idling. At the
location of T6 this excessive gating is often seen in individuals dealing with
trauma or anxiety.&nbsp; </p><h4 style="text-align: left;">Temporal Lobe Alpha in Raw EEG data</h4><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Temporal%20Lobe%20Alpha.png" alt="Temporal Lobe Alpha" width="1270" height="1312" style="text-align: left;" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle"><br><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p style="text-align: left;"><span style="color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.715rem;">Temporal Lobe Alpha in qEEG data&nbsp;</span><br></p><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 1rem;">&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</span><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Temporal%20Lobe%20Alpha%20QEEG.png" alt="Temporal Lobe ALpha in QEEG" width="633" height="405" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle" style="font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Toc29328791" style="color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.715rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Anteriorized
Alpha</a><br></p>

<p style="text-align: left;">Anteriorized
alpha can mean there is a heightened degree of vigilance, as well as an
affect-regulatory issue. This would be reflected in depressive and motivational
issues. However, frontal alpha in the EEG may reflect drowsiness, as well. Lastly, this is a common finding in individuals who habitually smoke marijuana.</p><p></p><h3 style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Toc29328792">Hypercoherent Alpha</a></h3><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p></p><h4 style="text-align: left;">Image of Hypercoherent Alpha from WINEEG</h4><p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Alpha%20Coherence%20Issues.png" alt="Alpha Coherence Issues" width="291" height="270" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_left" style="text-align: left;"></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p></p><h3 style="text-align: left;">Mu Rhythm</h3><p style="text-align: left;"><a name="_Hlk39004292">Mu rhythm &nbsp;is a
monomorphic “wicket rhythm” and is often a tick faster than the individual’s
alpha peak frequency (i.e. if one’s alpha peak is at 10Hz, they would present
mu at 11+ hz typically). Mu always presents in C3 and C4, over the sensory
motor cortex, when the mirror neurons are not engaged. Mu is an indication of frontal
lobe disengagement.</a></p>

<p style="text-align: left;">As a baby, mirror neurons enable us
to mimic our parents, and “motherese” (a parent’s repeating the “goo -goo” and
“gaa-gaa” of babies) enables us to learn speech sounds. We learn all these
things by mimicking. Burgoon
(1985): 60% of human communication is non-verbal and mu is a sign that
non-verbal communication is not being seen or perceived by the brain.</p>

<p style="text-align: left;">Mimicking and mirroring speech is controlled by the brain’s
frontal central loop and central-temporal loop (The temporals allow for the
perceptual comprehension of the mimicry). The right-hand side of the sensory
motor strip of the brain (C4) is responsible for mimicking impressions and the
emotional tone of speech, as well as integrate empathy, and emotion. Mirror
neurons on the left (C3) lay down language. Oxytoxin is for social bonding and
oxytocin attenuates mu.&nbsp; Oxytocin is a
hormone produced in the hypothalamus and released by the pituitary, which plays a role in social bonding,
sexual reproduction, childbirth, and the period after childbirth. &nbsp;When we are creating oxytocin, we cannot
