<p></p>
<h3>Recognizing Normal &amp; Abnormal EEG Patterns</h3>

<p>Brainwaves are characterized by their speed (frequency), size (amplitude) and shape (morphology). Frequency is the power or speed of the electrical emissions, measured in hertz (Hz). Amplitude is the power of the brain's electricity, measured in microvolts.
    Pure microvolts is called magnitude and microvolts squared is called amplitude. Here are some other and important definitions. In EEG analysis and brain region analysis, it is helpful to think of the frequency as the adjective (i.e. theta = foggy,
    groggy, fuzzy, trance-like, day-dreamy, “not all here,”) and the region that is affected as the noun.</p>
<h3><br><a name="_Toc29328765"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Waveform%20%281%29.png" alt="" width="500" height="190" role="presentation" class="atto_image_button_middle"></a>
    </h3><h3><a name="_Toc29328765">Important Definitio</a><a name="_Toc29328765" style="color: rgb(55, 71, 79);  background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">ns&nbsp;</a></h3>

<h5><a name="_Toc29328765"><b style="color: rgb(82, 96, 105);  ">Action
Potentials: </b><span style="color: rgb(82, 96, 105);  ">The exchange of potassium (K+), Chloride (Cl-), Calcium (Ca</span><sup style="color: rgb(82, 96, 105);  ">2</sup><span style="color: rgb(82, 96, 105);  ">+)
and Sodium (Na+) along the dendrite of a neuron, which produces a small battery
that maintains a voltage of -60 millivolts.</span></a></h5>
<p><b>Amplitude:
</b>The height of the brainwave and power of the electricity, measured in microvolts squared.<br><b>Asymmetry:
</b>The absence or violation of balance between two hemispheres or quadrants.<br><b>Connectome: </b>The complete description of the structural connectivity (the physical wiring) of an organism’s nervous system.<br><b>Coherence: </b>The stability of phase
    relationship between any two areas of the brain. Two areas are said to be coherent if they have constant respective relative phase. Coherence in excess is hypercoherence; coherence in deficiency is hypocoherence.<br><b>Frequency</b>: Cycles per second.
    The standard unit of frequency is “Hertz,” which is abbreviated as Hz. 4 Hz is equal to four cycles per second.&nbsp;
    <a href="#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" title="">
        <!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[1]<br>
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    </a><b>Frequency
Band: </b>A range of wave frequencies, typically grouped as follows: delta (0-4 Hz), theta (4-8 Hz), alpha (8-12 Hz), low beta (12-15 Hz), mid beta (15-25Hz), high beta (25-40Hz), gamma (40+ Hz).<br><b>Lateralized</b>: Occurring only over one hemisphere<br><b>Bilateral:</b>    Occurring on both sides of the EEG; occurring over both hemispheres<br><b>Diffuse</b>: Widespread, occurring over a large area of one or both hemispheres<br><b>Dominant Frequency</b> (Aka Background Rhythm): The frequency of EEG activity that occupies
    the greater part of the recording<br><b>Focal:</b> In a clearly delineated area of the brain as in a focal temporal spike or focal slowing<br><b>Harmonic:</b> A wave or frequency that is an integral multiple of a given frequency.<br><b>Homologous</b>:
    Two areas at the same region of the brain, mirrored, sharing common function (i.e. C# is the homologue to C4)<br><b>Magnitude:&nbsp;<b>&nbsp;</b>The height of the brainwave and power of the electricity, measured in microvolts.<br></b><b>Multifocal</b>:
    Having several independent foci as in multifocal paroxysmal spike discharges<br><b>Sub-harmonic:</b> A frequency that is below the fundamental frequency, which divides evenly into the fundamental frequency.<br><b>Synchrony:
</b>A balance that occurs if waves of similar frequency occur simultaneously in different areas of the head. Waves that occur in different channels without a constant time relationship to each other are called asynchronous.<br></p>
<p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Brainwaves.png" alt="Brainwaves" width="800" height="458" class="atto_image_button_middle"></p>













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<p><a name="_Toc29328767" style="color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-size: 2.143rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Delta</a><br></p>

<h3><a name="_Toc29328768" style="color: rgb(55, 71, 79);  background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Healthy Delta</a><br></h3>

<p><b><u>Delta rhythm</u></b> is a brainwave that is most commonly seen in deep dreamless sleep (NREM 4) in healthy adults and children. It is also a dominant brainwave in infants, since the earliest stages of life are times of, one, a lot of sleep, and
    two, neurogenesis and angiogenesis. Young brains form, develop and grow with the production of delta. Although usually thought of as being associated with sleep and parts of the brain being “off line,” taking up nourishment, delta activity is always
    present in normal EEG’s of any age.&nbsp; It is generated cortically and inhibited by afferent stimulation of the cortex.&nbsp;</p>

<p>There is a substantial QEEG literature relating delta power to higher order mental functions in normal awake humans.&nbsp; Increased delta activity has been observed in normal subjects performing calculations, taking reaction time tests, and thinking
    abstract thoughts.&nbsp; Delta is thought to have a functional role in allocating attention to internal mental representations, by suppressing extraneous cortical inputs and facilitating internal concentration. Anterior lead voltage in awake subjects
    is 20%-30% delta.&nbsp; &nbsp;</p>

<div>
    <!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Delta.png" alt="" width="400" height="300" role="presentation" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_left"><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><h3><br></h3>
    <h3><a name="_Toc29328769" style="color: rgb(55, 71, 79);  background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Pathological
High Amplitude Delta</a><br></h3>

    <p>When delta is pathological, it represents cognitive impairment or of brain damage. Delta excesses often correlated with damage to the white matter (the white matter axons are exclusively excitatory). Focal&nbsp;delta activity should always be considered
        abnormal, possibly indicating a lesion, and should result in referral of the patient to a neurologist for further evaluation.&nbsp; Focal delta can also reflect white mater abnormalities, as we see in ASD.&nbsp; Generalized background slowing
        indicates diffuse cerebral dysfunction, which, similar to focal slowing, is also not specific as to cause. Delta can indicate the effects of sedative centrally acting medications, neurodegenerative disorders, a widespread neurodevelopmental disorder,
        hydrocephalus, metabolic or toxic encephalopathy, CNS infectious disorders such as meningoencephalitis, traumatic brain injury, hypoxia, or anoxia. The delta band may be composed of delta rhythm activity (usually over 75 µV and rather rhythmic),
        slow cortical potentials (DC shifts) at .5 Hz and below, and also artifact (e.g., eye movement, glossokinetic artifact, electrodermal or sweat artifact).&nbsp; </p>
    <p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/PATHOLOGICAL%20DELTA.png" alt="" width="800" height="397" role="presentation" class="atto_image_button_middle"><br></p>
    <h4><span>Focal Delta in a patient taking Lithium and Zyprexa, on the Autistic Spectrum</span><br></h4>
    <p><br></p>
    <p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Focal%20Delta.png" alt="Focal Delta" width="400" height="557" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle"><br></p>
    <h4><span>Figure of Slow Transient, Reflecting Hypersomnia and Word Finding Issues</span><br></h4>
    <p><br></p>
    <p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/DElta%202.png" alt="" width="400" height="722" role="presentation" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle"><br></p>
    <h4>Figure of Focal Delta in a 12 year old girl with complications from an anoxic head injury
    </h4>
    <p><br></p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Delta%203.png" alt="Focal Delta" width="800" height="503" class="atto_image_button_middle">
    <p>An excess of delta activity may be seen in the records of individuals with learning disabilities, Alzheimer’s disease, demyelination, toxic or metabolic disturbances, edema, and with aging there is frequently an increase of delta waves, especially
        in the left hemisphere.&nbsp; Pathological delta patterns, known as FIRDA (Frontal Intermittent Rhythmic Delta Activity) and OIRDA (Occipital Intermittent Rhythmic Delta Activity) are abnormal and pathological delta patterns. FIRDA is a transient,
        rhythmic slow wave pattern over the anterior EEG leads, that indicates cerebral lesions, circulation infarcts, stroke victims, and various metabolic disturbances.</p>
    <h4>FIRDA Pattern in an elderly woman with metabolic encephalopathy
    </h4>
    <p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/FIRDA.png" alt="" width="800" height="585" role="presentation" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_left"><br></p>
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    <h3><a name="_Toc29328770" style="color: rgb(55, 71, 79);  background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Pathological
Low Amplitude Delta</a><br></h3>

    <p>Decreased delta power in quantitative EEGs has been found to be associated sometimes with complicated depression, chronic migraine, closed posterior head/neck injury, alcoholism, and a subgroup of patients who display lack of control over repetitive
        thoughts and behaviors and minor motor symptoms (Gerez-Malo &amp; Tell-Valdes, 1996).&nbsp;Low voltage delta can also indicate an old injury or a series of injuries (such is the case with professional athletes (soccer, rugby, and football players)
        who take many blows to the head.</p>
    <h4>Figure of a football player who sustained many concussions and blows to the head. He experiences short term memory impairment</h4>
    <p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Low%20Voltage%20Delta.png" alt="" width="580" height="756" role="presentation" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle"></p>
    <h3><a name="_Toc29328771">Pathological
Delta: Concussion and Mild Traumatic Brain Injury</a></h3>

    <p><a name="_Hlk25008071">Often in a concussion, the </a><span lang="EN-CA">initial impact will lead the brain to
release the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate at the areas of damage, which
causes a rapid depolarization of the local neurons. After this, the axonal
sodium/potassium pump goes into overdrive to rebalance ion/voltage imbalance,
more ATP (energy) is required,</span> there is a <span lang="EN-CA">jump in glucose metabolism, and </span>e<span lang="EN-CA">xtracellular swelling starts, reducing blood flow.
Then the increase in metabolism with reduced blood flow causes an energy crisis
in the cell. Cell is unable to carry out regular activity due to lack of energy
and</span> o<span lang="EN-CA">ften entire cell groups will go dormant to
preserve themselves. </span><span lang="EN-CA">This is one cause of a low voltage EEG. </span></p>

    <p>It is very likely that, after a career of having hard knocks to the skull, a client’s brain will form scar tissue at the sites of the accident (after initially experiencing a state of inflammation). If the inflammation is not able to properly heal
        the brain—which is its’ function—then the brain will ultimately learn to handle the inflammation by altering cellular structures to form tougher tissues, which would consequentially prevent blood perfusion at the sites of the injury and prevent
        the slower brainwaves of delta and theta from being read from the surface. Among the symptoms that are commonly reported in patients with TBI and mild TBI include impairment in attention, memory, psychomotor speed, and executive functions.</p>

    <p>Some of the symptoms the client may experience as a result of his head injury include: </p>

    <p></p>
    <ul>
        <li>Difficulty figuring out how to do new things</li>
        <li>Disorganization</li>
        <li>Difficulty completing activities in a reasonable amount of time</li>
        <li>Slower learning than is normal</li>
        <li>Becoming easily angered or frustrated</li>
        <li>Difficulty with word finding</li>
        <li>Extreme sensitivity to light and/or sounds</li>
        <li>Difficulty with concentration or focus</li>
        <li>Easily distracted</li>
        <li>Spacing out</li>
        <li>Headaches</li>
        <li>Forgetfulness</li>
        <li>Impulsivity, impatience, risk taking, rudeness, social impropriety</li>
        <li>Fatigue</li>
        <li>Difficulty with balance, dizziness, clumsiness and even incontinence
        </li>
        <li>Problems reading</li>
        <li>Confusion with puzzles, directions, and telling left from right</li>
        <li>Difficulty understanding others</li>
        <li>Difficulty switching from one task to another, especially when unexpected.</li>
        <li>Getting lost easily</li>
        <li>Feeling fidgety</li>
        <li>Emotional difficulties (depression, fear, nightmares)</li>
    </ul>

    <p><a name="_Hlk530947264">Groups
with a delta deficit include cocaine addicts, ADD, subtypes of OCD, and
schizophrenia—all of whom have problems with frontal cortical regulation of
attention or impulsive behavior, as well as the processing of extraneous
stimuli.</a>&nbsp; There is evidence suggesting a significant functional relationship of the delta rhythm to the mesotelencephalic dopamine (DA) projection.&nbsp; </p>
    <h3><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Mesotelencephalic%20System.png" alt="" width="520" height="478" role="presentation" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle"></h3>
    <h3>The Mesotelencaphalic Dopamine System</h3>

    <p>The estimated location of the major site for delta generation in midline and the anterior frontal cortex corresponds with the location of the main cortical terminal field of the mesotelencephalic DA projection.&nbsp; </p>

    <h3><a name="_Hlk28339132"></a><a name="_Toc29328772">Psychodynamic Delta</a>
    </h3>



    <p>The basis of my conceptualization of EEG, which has formed from the works of many seminal authors and scholars, is as follows: Delta (1-4Hz) is the collective unconscious, a low frequency, high amplitude brainwave that is connected with psi-phenomena,
        pre-cognitive abilities, connection with nature, and deep emotional intelligence (Wise, 1995, 2002). Delta is the rhythm of the heart.</p>

    <p>Delta arises out of the cosmic unconscious; Wise (1995, 2002) believed that delta was pronounced in healers, seers, or traumatized individuals. That is, the traumatized child may rely more heavily on premonition or gut instinct, to prevent being abused.
        Those with higher amplitude delta, according to Wise, may be hypervigilant or even have extra-sensory perception. Delta is the deep primal intuition, instinctual action, empathy and radar, allowing us to glean information that might not be available
        via consciousness (Wise, 1995, 2002).</p>

    <h2><a name="_Toc29328773">Theta</a></h2>

    <p>Theta is a frequency of 4-8Hz that emanates from the thalamus to the cortex and back again, it is a thalamo-cortical frequency and arrives in states of trance, deep meditation, drowsiness, under hypnosis and at the top of sleep cycle for healthy adults
        (REM sleep) during dream state. Theta also arrives in non rapid eye movement sleep (NREM 2 and NREM 3) at the midline and is part of what is called a “K-complex.” &nbsp;</p>

    <p>Otherwise, healthy theta is seen in children under 9 years of age and is linked up to the visual gestalt in infants. Theta is similar to delta in that it is indicative of neurogenesis in the infant and child. From an empirical perspective, theta is
        one of the main rhythms of the hippocampus, where it is linked to memory encoding, spatial memory, and cognitive processes (Gorochowski, 2009; Stam, 2006). This has been found in many studies using rats. However, from intracranially implanted
        electrodes in seizure patients, Cantero&nbsp;<i>et al.</i>&nbsp;(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theta_wave#refCantero2003">2003</a>) found that oscillations in the 4–7&nbsp;Hz frequency range could be recorded from both the hippocampus
        and neocortex in humans, whereas previously it was not known if humans created hippocampal theta, as rats do. The hippocampal oscillations were associated with REM sleep and the transition from sleep to waking, and came in brief bursts, usually
        less than a second long. Cortical theta oscillations, arising from the thalamus and other subcortical structures, were observed during the transition from sleep and during quiet wakefulness; however, the authors were unable to find any correlation
        between hippocampal and cortical theta waves, and concluded that the two processes are probably controlled by independent mechanisms, however they are likely related. Cortical theta is generated from the thalamus and the nucleus accumbens in the
        forebrain. Frontal midline theta, as seen in brief bursts on memory retrieval tasks as the nucleus accumbens provides acetylcholine to the temporal lobe's limbic structures via the diagonal band of Broca, which is connected to the amygdala/hippocampus
        complex, allowing rhythmicity (Gunkelman, 2014).&nbsp; Memory uses theta as a carrier wave, upon which other, faster frequencies can ride; the nesting of faster, gamma waves upon theta waves promotes short term memory (DeRidder, 2014; Klimesh,
        Sauseng, &amp; Hanslmeyer, 2007). According to Gorochowski (2009), theta modulates gamma, which allows for the construction (and reconstruction) of a low-frequency-modulating-phase.</p>
    <h4>Figure of Diffuse Theta</h4>
    <p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Theta.png" alt="" width="500" height="759" role="presentation" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle"></p>
    <div id="ftn1">
        <p><b><a name="_Toc29328774" style="color: rgb(55, 71, 79);background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Healthy Theta</a><br></b></p>
    </div>
</div>

<p>Theta rhythm is a normal finding during drowsiness in the adult EEG. Theta, may be seen at the onset of sleep as the alpha rhythm slows with drowsiness. Theta is also the brainwave state of dreams. As earlier mentioned, the slow waves that occur here
    correspond to rapid eye movement (REM), which is thought to be healing, developing, and rejuvenating (Crick &amp; Michison, 1983; Evans, 1983; Ornstein, 1986; Oswald, 1980; Shaffery, Oksenberg, Marks, Speciale, Mihailoff, &amp; Roffwarg, 1998; Siegel,
    2010). In 1953, the hypnogogic brainwave state was discovered, consisting of a period of several minutes where the mind is overtaken with image fragments or short dramas. At that time, this hypnogogic state was dubbed “theta” and was seen in asynchronous
    oscillations of 5-8 hertz (i.e., 5 to 8 waveforms over the course of 1 second) occurring over the cortex of the brain. Rhythmic or “synchronous” theta was found to be present in the awake raw EEG, increasing as subjects got drowsy or started daydreaming
    (Ulrich, 2013, pp. 38-39). </p>

<p>From an empirical brainwave perspective, the brain wave patterns of the dreamer have been identified as asynchronous theta and REM sleep state, which is activated endogenously in the dreaming state. Their function, according to Winson (2002) is to further
    process the memory contents of the past while the individual is asleep. The hippocampus is foundational for its generation in sleep, which allows for the mapping of the sensorimotor, temporal, and environmental space (Bland &amp; Oddie, 2001). This
    mapping may be linked to the storage of procedural memory, since the right parietal cortical areas (housing the right hippocampus and the medial temporal lobe diencephalon) are activated in spatial and mental imagery exercises (Schore, 2003; Solms
    &amp; Turnbull, 2002). This is the same area as that which becomes activated both in dreaming and in the infant’s breast-feeding (Winson, 2002).</p>

<p>Theta generation has been linked to the replenishing of important neuronal proteins, for cell and synaptic growth, as well as the production of growth hormones, neurochemicals, neurotransmitters, and neuromodulators (Shaffery et al., 1998). Furthermore,
    REM sleep has been linked to the development of the hippocampi—the seat of learning and memory (Lewin &amp; Glaubman, 1975; Shaffery et al., 1998).<a name="_Hlk517070865"> Theta is a rejuvenating brainwave, responsible for
neurogenesis and healing. It is these slow waves that the infant and child spend
much of their time in, as these are essential to the building of networks, as
well as feelings of safe, calm, and protectedness.</a></p>
<h4>Pathological Theta</h4>
<p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Pathological%20Theta.png" alt="" width="624" height="334" role="presentation" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle"></p>
<p>Unhealthy theta can mean many different things in EEG. From a clinical perspective, theta can indicate concussion or head trauma, as well as attention deficit disorder, distractibility, foggy thinking, inability to sequence tasks, forgetfulness, or daydreamy-ness.
    One with excess theta might be accused of being a “space-cadet.” &nbsp;Having too much theta with eyes open would cause one to feel unable to focus on the task at hand for a long period of time. Any "theta band" activity may be slowed thalamo-cortical
    alpha or limbically generated rhythmic slow activity (theta), as stated in Steriade's 1990 IFCN position paper.</p>
<h4>Figure of Post Concussive Syndrome in a 17-year old Soccer Athlete, excessive occipital theta (Z-score summary map)</h4>
<p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Theta%203.png" alt="" width="770" height="1021" role="presentation" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom"><br></p>
<p></p>
<h4>Excessive Theta at the right posterior temporal lobe (Eyes Closed)</h4>
<p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Raw%20Theta.png" alt="" width="496" height="766" role="presentation" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle"></p>
<h5>
    <p>When there is a lack of blood flow and oxygen to the area, there is often a consequential slowing of alpha at the area, sometimes into the theta range. As an area degrades, sometimes the alpha slows considerably below the normal alpha band (i.e. less
        than 8hz). A slowed alpha can represent a compromise of blood flow, and consequentially oxygen, to an area, which will lead to ischemia. The dip in alpha frequency will indicate how severe the ischemia is (Classen and Foreman, 2012). Theta will
        arise with grey matter damage, which can be resultant of a trauma (such as a blow to the head), a vascular anomaly, an aneurism or structural anomaly (like the jarring of the cerebro-cervical juncture in a car accident).
        <br></p>
</h5>
<p></p>
<p></p>
<p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Theta%20and%20Dementia.png" alt="" width="800" height="633" role="presentation" style="font-size: 1rem;" class="atto_image_button_middle"></p><p><a name="_Toc29328776" style="color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.715rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Psychodynamic Theta</a><br></p>

<p>From Wise’s perspective (1995, 2002), theta is the subconscious, akin to Jung’s personal unconscious. It is the individual’s repressed materials, the abuses, the traumas, the trials, the tribulations, and the terrors. Theta is also the reverie, the deep
    longings and wishes, all those things that we push down, to be forgotten in our subconscious. Theta gives these deeply repressed memories life at the top of the sleep cycle in the form of dreams. Wise (1995, 2002) notes that theta can also be a repository
    for suppressed creativity and inspiration; she felt that theta was particularly strong during peak experiences, spiritual insights, and high-functioning brain states (such as deep meditation). She thought that theta brainwave states—which occur predominantly
    when we dream—were affiliated with the subconscious (a match for Jung’s personal unconscious): underlying interpretations and meanings that we are not privy to, but which we create—those that reside under the threshold of our awareness.&nbsp; The
    personal unconscious is the place where we bury our shadows and from which our behaviors unconsciously emerge.&nbsp; </p>

<h3><a name="_Toc29328777">Lambda</a></h3>

<p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Lambda.png" alt="" width="624" height="421" role="presentation" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle"></p><p>Lambda is a triangular shaped wave at the occipital
    leads that represents visual tracking. It’s a visual, event related potential that has to do with visual searching—it is like an “aha” when you see something. Lambda is called lambdoid or lambdotal if your eyes are closed.&nbsp; You can see repeated
    sharp transients in the back of the head in an adult that is reading or watching a movie. If a person is put on a task reading and you see theta or higher frequency delta in the back of the head, do not interpret it as a problem, because it might
    be a lambda wave form showing up. Lambda waves are found mostly in patients 6 months to 10 years. </p><br><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Lambda%202.png" alt="" width="624" height="425" role="presentation" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_left"><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br>
<h3><b>ALPHA</b></h3>

<p>According to the International Federation of Societies for Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, the alpha rhythm is defined as: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </p>

<p></p>
<ul>
    <li>A rhythm with a frequency of 8-14Hz in adults</li>
    <li>Present in the posterior part of the head while the eyes are closed and the subject is in a state of relaxed wakefulness. </li>
</ul>
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<p>Alpha is responsible as the idling state of the brain. The generation of alpha is cortico-cortical processes (Stam, 2006, p. 49), as well as a cortico-thalamic process (DeRidder, 2014; Gunkelman, 2014). That means that alpha is generated from the cortex,
    as well as the thalamus. Although you are relaxed when in a predominantly alpha state, you are in the process of taking packets of data with each alpha wavelet (DeRidder, 2014).&nbsp; </p>

<p>Alpha can be recognized and differentiated from theta and beta by its sinusoidal rhythm. </p>

<p>The alpha rhythm attenuates (“blocks”) with the opening of the eyes, with drowsiness, concentration, stimulation or visual fixation. </p>

<p>Alpha rhythm is usually between 40 – 60 microvolts. About 6% of the healthy adult population has alpha rhythm above 60 microvolts. 30% of adults have alpha rhythm less than 20 microvolts.</p>

<h3><a name="_Toc29328779">Healthy Alpha</a></h3>

<p>Alpha is a relaxed and focused space, responsible for the state of flow, being in the zone, and creating. Alpha is the most obvious waveform in the raw EEG, typically showing itself as large amplitude, synchronous waveforms, usually emanating from the
    occipital regions of the head, regions known as O1, Oz, and O2. Alpha reflects perceptual anticipation of forthcoming stimuli (DeRidder, 2014). High amplitude alpha indicates an internally oriented state (i.e., more difficult to perceive an external
    trigger), and low amplitude alpha indicates an externally oriented state (i.e., easy to perceive external stimulus) (DeRidder, 2014). Typically, when an individual closes their eyes, the body is signaled to relax and alpha appears in the EEG; when
    one opens one’s eyes, alpha attenuates. If alpha remains in the EEG for a while after the eyes open, there is a likelihood the individual suffers from brain fog, inability to stay focused, difficulty sequencing thoughts, and difficulty planning; if
    alpha is imperceptible with closed eyes, the individual typically suffers from a trauma, such as PTSD (Swingle, 2010).</p>

<p><a name="_Hlk52257450"></a><a name="_Hlk15366181">Alpha
has been noted as the brainwave that is responsible for daydreaming,
fantasizing, visualization (relaxed, detached awareness), seen heavily in pot
smokers, dreamers, poets, and individuals who work in flow states (such as
energy healers).</a></p>

<p>Alpha peak frequency is synonymous with posterior dominant rhythm (PDR) and is the subject’s “idling rate”; everyone has their own dominant alpha frequency, which typically falls between 9 Hz and 11 Hz. Average alpha peak frequency is 10 to 10.5 Hz. An
    11Hz alpha peak frequency indicates a mind that is capable of processing data quickly, or quicker than most. Put simply, the brain has the capability to crunch 11 packets of data per second (the thalamus is gating at 11hz),an apt analogy is that of
    a camera with a fast shutter speed. The speed indicates the capability of the photographer to get a clear, high quality shot. A fast alpha peak frequency is a sign of a facile mind that has the capability to process data quickly. In the case of ruminations
    or obsessions, this asset can work towards unwanted focus or preoccupation, although it is not the cause of the symptoms, but rather a facilitator of fast processing.</p>

<h3><a name="_Toc29328780">Dual Alpha Peak</a></h3>

<p>When someone has two separate alpha peak frequencies you see fusiform alpha. Fusiform alpha will have an arciform morphology; this is indicative of a “beat frequency”—created when there are two alpha rhythms present at the same time.<img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/dual%20alpha%20peak.png" alt="Dual alpha peak" width="514" height="468" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle"> </p>

<p><b><u>Fusiform alpha is a beat frequency
that is the blending of two separate frequencies</u></b>. This mixing of frequencies will give you an interesting morphology that looks monomorphic, or one shape. Two alpha peaks has been observed within my own clinic as a marker of depression or tendencies
    of low mood and affective disorders.</p>
<p><span style="color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.715rem;">Figure of Fusiform Alpha</span><br></p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Fusiform%20Alpha.png" alt="" width="400" height="805" role="presentation" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom"><br><br>
<p>Alpha rhythm often comes on when someone closes their eyes; the clinicians should be able to get a reliable alpha reading in 20-30 seconds. Fast alpha (above 11 hz) correlates with good semantic and declarative memory performance). It is not linearly
    related to IQ, but is a component of it. </p>

<p>The quickening of someone’s alpha has been thought of as brain brightening. This enhances memory and semantics. Alpha is your sampling rate. If we see 10 peaks per second, you have 10 hz alpha. You have a higher resolution if you have faster alpha. You
    have crisper, sharper peceptions if you have fast alpha. The alpha rhythm is considered to be made up of two separate functional components.&nbsp; Low alpha band (8-10 Hz): associated with general or global attention, and high alpha band (10-13 Hz):
    reflecting directed or task specific attention.&nbsp; </p>

<p>Both Sterman et al. (1996) and Klimesch et al. (1993) found that individuals with good (versus poor) memories have stronger desynchronization in the lower alpha band during the encoding and retrieval of memory.&nbsp; Crawford et al. (1995) found more
    lower band alpha power in subjects whose attention was more distractible.&nbsp; When sleep deprivation occurs, it has been found to mostly affect low alpha (and theta), negatively influencing general attention (Sterman, 1999) so that excitation is
    blunted and the frequent return to an inattentive idling state (Hammond, 2018).&nbsp;</p>

<h3><a name="_Toc29328781">Alpha Slowing</a></h3>

<p>When there is a lack of blood flow and oxygen to the area, there is often a consequential slowing of alpha at the area. As the area degrades, sometimes the alpha slows considerably below the band. But this depends on how severe the ischemia is (Classen
    and Foreman, 2012). If the slowing is in the theta range, if can be due to a trauma, a vascular anomaly, an aneurism or structural anomaly.</p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Slow%20Alpha.png" alt="" width="800" height="449" role="presentation" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_left"><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br>
<p><a name="_Hlk15366419">The
mean adult frequency was found to be 10.5Hz, and is slightly higher in females
than in males (Brazier and Finesinger, 1944; Petersen &amp; Eeg-Olofsson, 1971).&nbsp;
Alpha stabilizes at its final peak by the ages of 10 (Niedermeyer, 1999b),
although earlier studies have tracked its stability as high as the age 15
(Peterson &amp; Eeg-Olofsson, 1971)</a>.&nbsp; Mean alpha below 9 Hz is significantly low, and a mean frequency below 8 Hz “is always abnormal, usually suggestive of a diffuse encephalopathy” (Markand, 1990, p. 181) (e.g., with systemic metabolic disorders
    like renal or hepatic disorders, hypothyroidism, hypoglycemia, or with cerebral insults).&nbsp; A general rule (Hughes, 1994) is that anyone from age 8 through centenarians should have an alpha background rhythm of at least 8 Hz.&nbsp;Wu and Liu (1995)
    only found 1% of healthy adults to have a dominant rhythm of 8 Hz. Occasionally a sub-harmonic to alpha is found at ½ the individual’s alpha frequency, and occasionally a fast alpha variant will walk into your clinic, at 13+ Hz. You will know it is
    alpha, because this 14-15 Hz rhythm will block to eye opening, and it is only found in about 3.6% of the population (Brazier &amp; Finesinger, 1944).&nbsp;Above average mean alpha levels may suggest hypervigilance, high intelligence (Gasser, Von Lucadou-Muller
    Verleger, &amp; Bacher, 1983) good memory (Klimesch, Doppelmayr, Schimke, &amp; Pachinger, 1996), and a fast processing rate.&nbsp; Worst case, these are the individuals who can spin into delusional thinking and flights of fancy, where their grip
    on reality is loose. </p>

<p>The alpha rhythm may also increase with increased body temperature (Gundel, 1984) or hyperthyroidism.&nbsp; The 10-14 Hz range seemed to be important during intellectual activity.&nbsp; Alpha frequency is positively correlated to cognitive performance,
    speed of information processing, and is significantly higher in individuals with good memory performance (Klimesch, 1999).</p>

<h3><a name="_Toc29328785">Alpha Amplitude</a></h3>

<p>The highest amplitude of alpha is found in the occipital area and is generally below 50 microvolts (µV).&nbsp; Amplitudes of 20-60 µV have been found in 66% of people, while amplitudes below 20 µV are found in 28%, and above 60 µV in 6% (Simonova et al.,
    1967).&nbsp; Children have higher amplitudes than adults (50-60 µV) and 9% of children (ages 1-15) have amplitudes of 100 µV or higher (Petersen &amp; Eeg-Olofsson, 1971).&nbsp; </p>

<p>An inverse relationship exists between the frequency of alpha and alpha amplitude (Brazier &amp; Finesinger, 1944).&nbsp; About 7%-9% of adults have a “low-voltage record,” consisting of amplitudes under 20 µV (Markand, 1990), which may or may not display
    alpha activity.</p>

<p>Klimesch (1999) has found that upper band alpha power (10-12Hz) decreases during semantic processing (i.e. talking)&nbsp; and theta power increases during episodic memory retrieval. Klimesch (1999) also found that a low theta/alpha ratio during resting
    state predicts good cognitive and memory performance, while , while under task, a large increase in theta power (synchronization) and a significant decrease in alpha power (desynchronization) is associated with good cognitive/memory performance.&nbsp;
    In relation to theta activity, it should be noted that Klimesch finds that theta synchronization occurs in a narrow frequency band in the range of the peak theta frequency, whereas there is a second<span><span><b>, </b>inefficient form of theta
synchronization associated with large, but irregular activity.&nbsp; Klimesch
(1999) concluded:</span></span>
</p>

<p><span><span>Large scale alpha
synchronization blocks information processing because very large populations of
neurons oscillate with the same phase and frequency.&nbsp; In contrast, alpha
desynchronization reflects actual cognitive processes because different
neuronal networks start to oscillate at different frequencies and with
different phases (p. 190).</span></span>
</p>

<p>Synchronous, persistent alpha is expected with eyes closed—this is effectively the brain “twiddling its thumbs.“ However, when eyes are open, alpha ought to diminish. If it does not, especially if it is predominantly seen on one side, the individual ought
    to consult a neurologist.</p>

<h3><a name="_Toc29328786">Alpha Asymmetry</a></h3>

<p>About 80% of individuals have greater alpha amplitude on the right. Alpha on the right can be 2x alpha on the left and still be normal. Because alpha rhythm is usually of higher amplitude on the right side (for right-handed people), a decrease of even
    35% on the right may be significant (Duffy et al., 1989).&nbsp; &nbsp;If alpha is larger on the left it should not be more than 1/5x alpha on the right. When alpha frequency is slower by 1 Hz or more (and localized in one hemisphere), it may indicate
    a focal abnormality (Markand, 1990) warranting a neurological consult; a difference of 1.5 Hz or more is particularly worrisome (Duffy, et al., 1989).</p>

<h3><a name="_Toc29328787">Alpha
Peak Frequency</a></h3>

<p>Alpha is considered the predominant idling rhythm in adults, however theta is the predominant rhythm in children until ages 10 - 13, when alpha becomes the more predominant rhythm. Slow brainwave activity (&lt;8hz) continues to decline in the EEG until
    the late twenties. Alpha peak frequency speeds up as be age: 6 Hz at one year of age, 8 Hz range by age 3, reaching 10 Hz by about age 10 (Niedermeyer, 1999b).&nbsp; </p>

<p>Beginning in the later 50's, there is a gradual decrease in alpha frequency, most likely due to pathology such as diminished vascular flow to the brain.&nbsp; However, alpha rhythm will remain above 9 Hz in healthy elderly subjects who do not have systemic
    or neurologic problems (Markand, 1990).&nbsp; Katz and Horowitz (1982) reported an average alpha frequency of 9.8 Hz in individuals in their 70's, while Hubbard et al. (1976) found a mean alpha frequency of 8.6 in 10 individuals between the ages of
    100 and 105 years of age.&nbsp; Alpha frequency is lowered in dementia patients.</p>

<p><a name="_Hlk525201212">Alpha peak frequency is the subject’s “idling rate”; every adult
has their own dominant alpha frequency, which typically falls between 9 Hz and
11 Hz. Average alpha peak frequency is about 9 to 9.5 Hz. A 10Hz alpha peak
frequency indicates a mind that is capable of processing 10 packets of data per
second—an apt analogy is that of a camera with a fast shutter speed. The speed
indicates the capability of the photographer to get a clear, high quality shot.</a> A fast alpha peak frequency is a sign of a facile mind that has the capability to process data quickly. In the case of ruminations or obsessions, this asset can work towards
    unwanted focus or preoccupation, although it is not the cause of the symptoms, but rather a facilitator of fast processing.<a name="_Hlk515397270"></a><a name="_Hlk484153329"></a></p>
<h3>Developmental Alpha</h3>
<p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Developmental%20Alpha.png" alt="" width="500" height="638" role="presentation" class="atto_image_button_middle"></p>
<p>As we age, alpha speeds up. At the age of 4 months our alpha frequency is 4Hz. By 12 months it should be 6Hz and by the time we reach the age of 3 years old it should speed up to 8 Hz. Usuall its approximately 9 Hz by 9 years of age and by the time we
    reach ten years old it should be maturing to approximately 10 Hz. In practice it has been noted that boys often take longer than girls to have their alpha mature. Sometimes boys are as old as 13 when their alpha matures.&nbsp;</p>
<h3><a name="_Toc29328788" style="color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-size: 1.715rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Alpha Blocking</a><br></h3>

<p><a name="_Hlk52257811"></a><a name="_Hlk529261354">Alpha is thought
to be the brainwave that enacts feelings of being in the “flow,” of being in
the “zone,” or of being present. During the production of alpha, we generally
are fixed on one task, meditation, or sight. We are typically not dealing with
thoughts that would otherwise busy the mind (i.e. monkey mind type of
thoughts). When someone closes their eyes and does not produce alpha it is
considered alpha blocking, which can indicate an inability to relax and calm
down. It should be noted that 10% of the healthy adult population will not
display alpha with eyes closed. When alpha blocking occurs with eyes closed, it
can also indicate hypervigilance, a sign of trauma—the individual “white
knuckling”” or displaying an inability to relax. When people’s alpha amplitude decrease
with eyes closed this is more likely the case. </a><a name="_Toc525053829">In cases like these,
the ability to calm, to self sooth, the quiet otherwise troublesome thoughts,
might not come as easily as it would to one’s peers</a>. </p>



<h3><a name="_Toc29328789">Temporal
Lobe Alpha</a></h3>

<p><a name="_Hlk39003886"></a><a name="_Hlk523168276"></a><a name="_Hlk526143762"></a><a name="_Hlk525136443">The
appearance of alpha at the temporal leads is most easily seen in a Laplacian
montage. “Excess Temporal Lobe Alpha” (TLA) classification is used when
evidence exists that the temporal lobe generates abnormal amounts of alpha. TLA
suggests frontal lobe disengagement which results in temporal lobe idling and suggests
an affective perceptual problem, prosodic comprehension difficulty, and even a
deficit in spatial reasoning</a>. </p>

<p>It is important to accurately determine the source of the alpha and to rule out alpha contamination from posterior regions. Alpha contamination occurs when occipital and parietal alpha spreads into EEG sensors placed in the temporal lobe region, creating
    the illusion of temporal lobe and frontal lobe alpha (due to ear reference contamination) (Hammond &amp; Gunkelman, 2001). </p>
<p>Figure of Temporal Lobe Alpha</p>
<p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Temporal%20Lobe%20Alpha.png" alt="" width="800" height="827" role="presentation" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle"><br></p>
<h3><a name="_Toc29328790">Trauma Marker Alpha</a></h3>

<p>With eyes open, when we see the appearance of alpha gating at T6, which has been found to be a common finding in soldiers who have even been in active combat. TLA suggests frontal lobe disengagement which results in temporal lobe idling. At the location
    of T6 this excessive gating is often seen in individuals dealing with trauma or anxiety.&nbsp; </p>
<p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Temporal%20Lobe%20ALpha%202.png" alt="" width="624" height="399" role="presentation" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_left"><br></p><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br>
<h3><a name="_Toc29328791">Anteriorized
Alpha</a></h3>

<p>Anteriorized alpha can indicate a number of things. It can&nbsp; mean there is a heightened degree of vigilance or an affect-regulatory issue (this would be reflected in depressive and motivational issues). However, frontal alpha in the EEG may reflect
    drowsiness, as well. Lastly, frontal alpha can indicate that the individual consumes cannabis regularly.</p>
<p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Anteriorized%20alpha.png" alt="" width="500" height="835" role="presentation" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_left"><br></p><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br>
<h3><a name="_Toc29328793">Mu</a></h3>

<p><a name="_Hlk39004292">Mu rhythm &nbsp;is a
monomorphic “wicket rhythm” and is often a tick faster than the individual’s
alpha peak frequency (i.e. if one’s alpha peak is at 10Hz, they would present
mu at 11+ hz typically). Mu always presents in C3 and C4, over the sensory
motor cortex, when the mirror neurons are not engaged. Mu is an indication of frontal
lobe disengagement.</a></p>

<p>As a baby, mirror neurons enable us to mimic our parents, and “motherese” (a parent’s repeating the “goo -goo” and “gaa-gaa” of babies) enables us to learn speech sounds. We learn all these things by mimicking. Burgoon (1985): 60% of human communication
    is non-verbal and mu is a sign that non-verbal communication is not being seen or perceived by the brain.</p>

<p>Mimicking and mirroring speech is controlled by the brain’s frontal central loop and central-temporal loop (The temporals allow for the perceptual comprehension of the mimicry). The right-hand side of the sensory motor strip of the brain (C4) is responsible
    for mimicking impressions and the emotional tone of speech, as well as integrate empathy, and emotion. Mirror neurons on the left (C3) lay down language. Oxytocin is for social bonding and oxytocin attenuates mu.&nbsp; Oxytocin is a hormone produced
    in the hypothalamus and released by the pituitary, which plays a role in social bonding, sexual reproduction, childbirth, and the period after childbirth. &nbsp;When we are creating oxytocin, we cannot create mu. </p>



<p>If you suspect mu and you ask your patient to wiggle their fingers, the presence of mu will disappear. <b>&nbsp;</b>It is noteworthy that Mu is present in 70% of the autistic population, whereas only 15% of the fully normal population has mu and 50% of
    the ADHD population have it, as well as 50% of Affective Disorders.<b></b></p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/mu%20rhythm%20.png" alt="" width="549" height="769" role="presentation" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_left"><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br>
<h4>Figure of qEEG of Mu Rhythm</h4><br><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/QEEG%20of%20Mu.png" alt="" width="624" height="521" role="presentation" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_left"><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br>
<h4>Figure of Raw qEEG representation of mu (red box) and harmonic of mu (green box)</h4>
<p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/mu%20in%20raw.png" alt="" width="571" height="661" role="presentation" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_left"><br></p><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br>
<h2><a name="_Toc29328794">Beta (1, 2, 3)</a></h2>

<p><a name="_Hlk52258251"></a><a name="_Hlk529253653"></a><a name="_Hlk535906617"></a><a name="_Hlk525201352">Beta occurs from local groups of pyramidal
neurons synchronize; beta &nbsp;is a
cortico-cortical frequency (which means its origin is the bark of the brain,
the cortex). Beta ranges from Beta 1 (12-15Hz) Beta 2 (15-18Hz), Beta
3(18-25Hz), and High Beta (25-30 Hz)</a> (some cap beta as high as 40Hz). <a name="_Hlk521998265">Beta </a>predominantly occurs in the frontocentral areas of the brain, usually with an amplitude of 30µV or less and is symmetrical This is the brainwave
    of our normal waking consciousness and encompasses all executive functioning, such as making plans, acting, and problem-solving. Beta II is at work much of the time that we are processing details, comprehending, and making meaning. Beta III is shown
    during periods of high focus and engagement. When pathological, beta often appears in high amplitude, often indicating stress, anxiety, fear, and worry. It is beta that allows us to determine what makes us up, who we are, what we believe in (and do
    not believe in), and all other components of our identity. It might be argued that the other frequencies inform our ego state (and they do), but our primary mode of thought is in beta. Individuals with too much high amplitude beta are often those
    suffering from neurological conditions. Wise (1995) noted that “excessive amounts of beta can lead to great psychological discomfort” (p. 3).</p>



<p>Beta is active thought, active thinking. This signature suggests a brain that is having difficulty calming down—there are indications of an hyperaroused or hyperalert state. Of particular interest is the right frontotemporal&nbsp; cortex; it appears this
    is the origin of the high amplitude fast wave activity.&nbsp; This area contains most of the dopamine sensitive neurons in the human cortex, which are associated with reward, attention, planning, motivation, and short term memory. It is bordered from
    behind with the pre-central gyrus, containing the primary motor cortex, an area responsible for voluntary body movements.</p>



<p>&nbsp;</p>

<h4>Figure of anxiety as seen in the EEG via high amplitude beta (raw data)</h4><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/beta%20anxiety.png" alt="" width="624" height="561" role="presentation" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_left"><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br>
<h4>Figure of qEEG for High Amplitude Beta signifying anxiety</h4><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/QEEG%20of%20beta.png" alt="QEEG of Beta" width="624" height="827" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle"><br><br><br>
<h3><a name="_Toc16242804"></a><a name="_Toc29328795">Spindling Beta</a></h3>

<p>&nbsp;<b style="font-size: 1rem;"><u>Spindling beta</u></b><span style="font-size: 1rem;"> is associated with:</span></p>

<p></p><ul><li>cortical irritability</li><li>toxic encephalopathy</li><li>epilepsy</li><li>pre-epileptic auras</li><li>benzo toxicity</li><li>10% of ADD &amp; ADHD</li><li>Affective disorders</li><li>Bipolar disorders</li></ul>
    <!--[if !supportLists]--><p></p>















<p>Very often beta of this morphology and frequency acts as a stabilizing rhythm, or as a compensatory frequency for a less stable EEG. Beta Spindles arrive in EEG as sleep spindles, as a stabilizing rhythm, to prevent one from awakening. &nbsp;Spindling
    beta represents a nonspecific indicator of cortical dysfunction or encephalopathy when <u>determined <b><i>not</i></b>
to be a medication effect</u>. Beta spindles often correlate with an overall anxious demeanor characterized by frequent and intense ruminative thinking. Spindling beta is hyper synchronous and is indicative of central nervous system hyperarousal. Spindling
    beta is also associated with cortical irritability, toxic encephalopathy, epilepsy, pre-epileptic auras, and benzodiazepine toxicity. It also indicates a wakefulness drive, making maintaining sleep more difficult (either difficulty falling asleep
    or staying asleep). This waveform is kindled easily and is common in bi-polar, anxiety, insomnia, as well as impulsivity. </p>

<h4>Figure of Benzodiazepine-induced Spindling beta (raw data)</h4><br><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Spindling%20Beta%202.png" alt="" width="624" height="556" role="presentation" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_left"><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br>
<h4>Figure of qEEG for high amplitude spindling beta (Benzodiazepine use)</h4>
<p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Qeeg%20of%20spinding%20beta%20.png" alt="" width="624" height="808" role="presentation" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_left"><br></p><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br>
<h2><a name="_Toc29328796">Gamma</a></h2>

<p><span style="">Of all the brainwaves, gamma (40+ Hz)
is the least understood. This is largely because of the, until recent,
technological limitations of equipment to pick up these very fast, very tiny,
30+ Hz brainwaves. Complicating the process is the fact that gamma is easily
confused with muscle artifact from the head and jaw. Gamma is seen in the EEG
when the participant is presented with unpredicted stimuli (Arnal et al.,
2011). &nbsp;It is the “aha!” or “Eureka!” of
the EEG. It arrives in bursts when we recognize something novel.</span></p>

<p>Gamma travels in envelopes, which surround the oscillation, making it appear with a spindle shape, and it has the ability to arise in any structure of the brain, because interneurons connected by GABA <sub>A </sub>receptors are ubiquitous throughout the
    brain (Buzsaki, 2006, p. 75). Of most interest, gamma has been implicated to be the binding rhythm of consciousness (Buzsaki, 2006, Gold, 1999; Hughes, 2008). It is not generated via a local neurophysiological generator, but is rather an emergent
    property of networks (Gunkelman, 2015) and is related to subjective awareness (Gunkelman, 2014). &nbsp;Gamma is healthy when it is nested in other frequencies, which is a phenomenon known as phase-amplitude cross frequency coupling, where the phase
    of one frequency (e.g., theta) changes the amplitude of another frequency (e.g., gamma). As the theta goes electro-negative, gamma is active, but when theta goes positive, gamma attenuates (Gunkelman, 2015). Gamma has also been tied to deep meditative
    states. Lutz, Greischar, Rawlings, Richard, and Davidson (2004) found that long-term meditators produce self-induced high amplitude gamma when meditating.</p>

<p>Gamma-frequency oscillations are typically short-lasting, transient events (Buzsaki, 2006, p. 76). One of the markers of pathological gamma is persistence; healthy gamma ought to occur in bursts or “chirps” (DeRidder, 2014). Low-frequency oscillations
    (such as those of delta and theta) have been reported to coordinate long-range communication, while gamma oscillations (40-150) coordinate local communication (Buzsaki &amp; Draguhn, 2004; von Stein et al., 2000). Local communication is between very
    close neuronal pools. At times brainwaves come into harmony (e.g., 45 Hz gamma laid over a background of 9 Hz alpha is a harmonic, since 45 divides into 9), and other patterns that represent certain states of being and of mind.</p>
<h4>Figure of Gamma Activity</h4>
<p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Gamma.png" alt="" width="1000" height="719" role="presentation" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_text-bottom"><br></p>

<p>&nbsp;</p><br>