<p></p><p>As previously mentioned, t<span style="font-size: 1rem;">he outermost cerebral cortex (neocortex) is made up of six
layers of closely packed cells of different types:</span></p><p>

</p><p><b>I-Molecular or plexiform layer: axons &amp; dendrites; few cell bodies </b></p>

<p><b>II-External Granular Layer: densely packed stellate cells; a
few small pyramidal cells. </b></p>

<p><b>III-Pyramidal Layer: loosely packed stellate cells;
intermediate-sized pyramidal cells. </b></p>

<p><b>IV-Internal Granular Layer: bands of densely packed stellate
cells; no pyramidal cells. </b></p>

<p><b>V- Internal Pyramidal Layer or Ganglionic Layer: very large pyramidal cells; a
few loosely packed stellate cells. </b></p>

<p><b>VI-Multiform or Poly Morphous Layer: Pyramidal cells of various sizes;
loosely packed stellate cells. </b></p><p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/pyramidal%20cells.jpg" alt="Pyramidal 1" width="800" height="718" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_left"><br></p>

<p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><span style="font-size: 1rem;"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Pyramidal%202.jpg?time=1597383446743" alt="Pyramidal 2" width="759" height="377" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_left"><br></span></p><p><span style="font-size: 1rem;">Most of these cortical cells can be classified as either
pyramidal or non-pyramidal based on their morphology, transmitter content and
distribution in cortical layers. Pyramidal cells with their characteristic
pyramid shape appear to be crucial to cortical EEG activity for several
reasons. Pyramidal cells have long dendrites extending from lower layers of the
cortex to the outermost layers of the neocortex. These dendrites are known as
apical dendrites. The length of these dendrites and the fact that they are
oriented perpendicular to the surface of the brain allows for input and synapses
from other cells in several layers of the cortex. Non-pyramidal cells in the
cortex, such as stellate (star shaped) are found at other levels of the
neocortex. Their axons, however are more oriented vertically and horizontally
and do not leave the cortex and appear to act more as interneurons as they
terminate on nearby neurons (intercortical connections) and pyramidal cells.
Many non-pyramidal cells contain an inhibitory transmitter substance (GABA) and
it is thought that these cells may play an inhibitory action in the cortex. In
addition, some non-pyramidal cells receive input directly from thalamic centers
and are believed to act as a link from the thalamus to the cortex in pacing
thalamocortical electrical activity (thalamocortical connections).</span></p><h3><span style="font-size: 1rem;"><b><h3><a name="_Toc28940409">Pre-Frontal Cortex</a></h3></b></span></h3><p>The pre-frontal cortex is involved in working memory, the planning of complex behaviors, and coordination of thought in relation to goals and decision-making (Gorochowski, 2009). This area of the brain is responsible for higher-ordered tasks, such as thinking, planning, motor execution, and mood control (Thatcher, 2015). With the evolution of the cerebral cortex, our early ancestors (Cro-Magnon man), once a free-roaming and wild species wholly reliable upon instincts, found themselves with higher cognitive thought, which upturned the previous reliance on unconscious drives and desires. With this outward growth of their brains, they were forced to think, deduce,</p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/PRE%20FRONTAL%20CORTEx.png" alt="Pre Frontal Cortex" width="834" height="338" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_left"><p><a name="_Toc28940402" style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem;"><br></a></p><p><a name="_Toc28940402" style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem;"><br></a></p><p><a name="_Toc28940402" style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem;"><br></a></p><p><a name="_Toc28940402" style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem;"><br></a></p><p><a name="_Toc28940402" style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem;"><br></a></p><p><a name="_Toc28940402" style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem;"><br></a></p><p><a name="_Toc28940402" style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem;"><br></a></p><p><a name="_Toc28940402" style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem;"><br></a></p><p><a name="_Toc28940402" style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem;"><br></a></p><p><a name="_Toc28940402" style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem;"><br></a></p><p><a name="_Toc28940402" style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: rgb(82, 96, 105); font-size: 1rem;">One interesting component of neurophysiology that has been discovered is that our prefrontal cortex can simulate the future (Byrne &amp; Reiner, 2006). This has been most popularly described in the case of Olympian athletes (Byrne &amp; Reiner, 2006). It has been proven that the same portions of the brain fire when these individuals complete their event in their mind as does when they are actually competing in the event. Taking the internal perspective triggers the somatosensory perspective (Casey &amp; Romanyshyn, 2010). In interviewing gymnasts, many of those who have qualified for the Olympics speak of using internal imagery—that is, they saw themselves inside their minds conducting their gymnastic feats, whereas those who did not qualify for the Olympics commonly used external imagery; they watched videotapes more and relied on observing others (Byrne &amp; Reiner, 2006).</a><br></p><h2><a name="_Toc28940404">Meninges</a></h2><p>The three membranes of elastic connective tissues that envelop the brain and the spinal cord are called meninges. The three layers are:</p><p><a name="_Toc28940405"><b>Dura Mater</b></a>&nbsp;– the outermost and toughest layer of the meninges</p><p><a name="_Toc28940406"><b>Arachnoid Mater</b></a>&nbsp;– The web-like middle layer of the meninges</p><p><a name="_Toc28940407"><b>Pia Mater</b></a>&nbsp;– The innermost layer of the meninges</p><p style="text-align: center; "><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/MENINGES.png" alt="Meninges" width="500" height="345" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle"><br></p><p style="text-align: center; "><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/meninges2.png" alt="meninges" width="500" height="312" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle"><br></p><p>The purpose of the meninges is to protect the brain and support its structure, including anchoring the brain and the brain stem to the skull. They also contain&nbsp;cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which acts as a cushion for the brain and provides a solution in which the brain is suspended, allowing it to preserve its shape.</p><p></p><p>Meningitis is inflammation of the meninges and spinal cord membranes, often caused by an infection.</p><p></p><p style="text-align: center;"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/MENINGES.png" alt="mENINGITIS" width="452" height="255" style="font-size: 1rem;"></p><p></p><p><a name="_Toc28940402"></a></p><h3><a name="_Toc28940409">The actions of meningitis</a></h3><p></p><p>Meningitis is an inflammation of the membranes (meninges) surrounding your brain and spinal cord.&nbsp;<span style="font-size: 1rem;">The swelling from meningitis typically triggers symptoms such as headache, fever and a stiff neck.</span></p><p>Most cases of meningitis in the United States are caused by a viral infection, but bacterial, parasitic and fungal infections are other causes. Some cases of meningitis improve without treatment in a few weeks. Others can be life-threatening and require emergency antibiotic treatment.</p><p></p><p>Viral infections are the most common cause of meningitis, followed by bacterial infections and, rarely, fungal infections. Because bacterial infections can be life-threatening, identifying the cause is essential.</p><h3>Bacterial meningitis</h3><p>Bacteria that enter the bloodstream and travel to the brain and spinal cord cause acute bacterial meningitis. But it can also occur when bacteria directly invade the meninges. This may be caused by an ear or sinus infection, a skull fracture, or, rarely, after some surgeries.</p><p>Several strains of bacteria can cause acute bacterial meningitis, most commonly:</p><ul><li><strong>Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus).</strong>&nbsp;This bacterium is the most common cause of bacterial meningitis in infants, young children and adults in the United States. It more commonly causes pneumonia or ear or sinus infections. A vaccine can help prevent this infection.</li><li><strong>Neisseria meningitidis (meningococcus).</strong>&nbsp;This bacterium is another leading cause of bacterial meningitis. These bacteria commonly cause an upper respiratory infection but can cause meningococcal meningitis when they enter the bloodstream. This is a highly contagious infection that affects mainly teenagers and young adults. It may cause local epidemics in college dormitories, boarding schools and military bases. A vaccine can help prevent infection.</li><li><strong>Haemophilus influenzae (haemophilus).</strong>&nbsp;Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) bacterium was once the leading cause of bacterial meningitis in children. But new Hib vaccines have greatly reduced the number of cases of this type of meningitis.</li><li><strong>Listeria monocytogenes (listeria).</strong>&nbsp;These bacteria can be found in unpasteurized cheeses, hot dogs and lunchmeats. Pregnant women, newborns, older adults and people with weakened immune systems are most susceptible. Listeria can cross the placental barrier, and infections in late pregnancy may be fatal to the baby.</li></ul><h3>Viral meningitis</h3><p>Viral meningitis is usually mild and often clears on its own. Most cases in the United States are caused by a group of viruses known as enteroviruses, which are most common in late summer and early fall. Viruses such as herpes simplex virus, HIV, mumps, West Nile virus and others also can cause viral meningitis.</p><h3>Chronic meningitis</h3><p>Slow-growing organisms (such as fungi and Mycobacterium tuberculosis) that invade the membranes and fluid surrounding your brain cause chronic meningitis. Chronic meningitis develops over two weeks or more. The signs and symptoms of chronic meningitis — headaches, fever, vomiting and mental cloudiness — are similar to those of acute meningitis.</p><h3>Fungal meningitis</h3><p>Fungal meningitis is relatively uncommon and causes chronic meningitis. It may mimic acute bacterial meningitis. Fungal meningitis isn't contagious from person to person. Cryptococcal meningitis is a common fungal form of the disease that affects people with immune deficiencies, such as AIDS. It's life-threatening if not treated with an antifungal medication.</p><h3>Other meningitis causes</h3><p>Meningitis can also result from noninfectious causes, such as chemical reactions, drug allergies, some types of cancer and inflammatory diseases such as sarcoidosis.</p><h2><br></h2><p></p><br><p></p><br><p style="text-align: center;">&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;<img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Meningitis.png" alt="Meningitis" width="700" height="451" style="font-size: 1rem; text-align: center;" class="atto_image_button_text-bottom"></p><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: left;">Possible signs and symptoms in anyone older than the age of 2 include:</p><ul><li style="text-align: left;">Sudden high fever</li><li style="text-align: left;">Stiff neck</li><li style="text-align: left;">Severe headache that seems different than normal</li><li style="text-align: left;">Headache with nausea or vomiting</li><li style="text-align: left;">Confusion or difficulty concentrating</li><li style="text-align: left;">Seizures</li><li style="text-align: left;">Sleepiness or difficulty waking</li><li style="text-align: left;">Sensitivity to light</li><li style="text-align: left;">No appetite or thirst</li><li style="text-align: left;">Skin rash (sometimes, such as in meningococcal meningitis)</li></ul><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p></p>