<p></p><p>The basic division of each of the hemispheres is into four lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital. Two prominent ﬁssures allow this subdivision to be made — the central ﬁssure and the lateral ﬁssure.</p><br><br><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 1rem;">&nbsp; &nbsp;</span><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Lobes.png" alt="Lobes" width="557" height="368" style="font-size: 1rem;"></p><p style="text-align: center;"><br></p><p></p><p></p><h2><a name="_Toc28940412">Pre-Frontal Cortex</a></h2><p style="text-align: left;"><br></p><p style="text-align: center;"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/PFC.png" alt="PFC" width="300" height="237" class="atto_image_button_left"><span style="font-size: 1rem;"></span></p><p style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: 1rem;">&nbsp;The prefrontal cortex&nbsp;makes up over 10% of the volume of the brain, The PFC contains the&nbsp;Brodmann areas 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 24, 25, 44, 46 and 47.&nbsp;<sup>&nbsp;</sup>This brain region has been implicated in&nbsp;planning complex cognitive behavior, personality expression,&nbsp;decision&nbsp;<span>making, moderating social behavior, and&nbsp;</span>moderating certain aspects of speech and language.&nbsp;The basic activity of this brain region is considered to be orchestration of thoughts and actions in accordance with internal goals.</span><sup>&nbsp;</sup><span style="font-size: 1rem;">The most typical&nbsp;psychological&nbsp;term for functions carried out by the prefrontal cortex area is&nbsp;executive function. Executive function relates to abilities to differentiate among conflicting thoughts, determine good and bad, better and best, same and different, future consequences of current activities, working toward a defined goal, prediction of outcomes, expectation based on actions, and social "control" (the ability to suppress urges that, if not suppressed, could lead to socially unacceptable outcomes). Patients with prefrontal cortex damage can experience blunted emotional responses, which may be another factor that negatively affects their ability to make decisions.</span></p><p style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: 1rem;"><br></span></p><p style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: 1rem;"><br></span></p><p></p><p><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Frontal%20Lobes.png" alt="Frontal Lobes" width="300" height="255" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_left"><br></p><p>Frontal lobes have the ability to regulate eye movement this is visual accommodation and convergence, the ability of the eyes to go left and right and focus and read.&nbsp; There is a physiological problem with ADD/ADHD kids—they have more difficulty keeping their eyes still.</p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><br></p><p><a name="_Toc28940413" style="color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.715rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"><br></a></p><p><a name="_Toc28940413" style="color: rgb(55, 71, 79); font-family: &quot;Open Sans&quot;; font-size: 1.715rem; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Dorso-Lateral Pre-Frontal Cortex</a><br></p><p>Between Brodmann areas 9, 10, 44 and 45 is the Dorso-Lateral Pre-Frontal Cortex (DLPFC).<a name="_Hlk494097976">&nbsp;This area&nbsp;</a><a name="_Hlk520354468">is the highest cortical area responsible for motor planning, organization and regulation. It has an important role in the integration of sensory and mnemonic information.</a></p><p style="text-align: center; "><a name="_Hlk520354468"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/DLPFC.jpg" alt="DLPFC" width="300" height="279" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle"><br></a></p><p>This area has cortical (surface) and sub cortical (under the surface—white matter) circuits for complex mental activity and executive functions. It plays a large role in executive memory (working memory, spatial memory, and short term memory), memory retrieval and encoding/recognition, as well as prospective memory, abstract thinking, intentionality and motivation.</p><p>In addition, this area is responsible for error processing and detection, processing emotional stimuli, self-reflection in decision making, pleasant and unpleasant emotions, inferential reasoning, decision weighing (conflict and reward), planning, and attribution of intention to others.</p><p>The sensory responsibilities of the dorsolateral pre-frontal cortex have to do with joint attention and autonomic nervous system regulation. The&nbsp;autonomic nervous system&nbsp;(ANS&nbsp;or&nbsp;visceral nervous system&nbsp;or&nbsp;involuntary nervous system) is the part of the&nbsp;peripheral nervous system&nbsp;that acts as a&nbsp;control system&nbsp;that functions largely below the level of&nbsp;consciousness&nbsp;to control&nbsp;visceral&nbsp;functions,&nbsp;including&nbsp;heart rate,&nbsp;digestion,&nbsp;respiratory rate,&nbsp;salivation,&nbsp;perspiration,&nbsp;pupillary dilation,&nbsp;micturition&nbsp;(urination),&nbsp;sexual arousal,&nbsp;breathing&nbsp;and&nbsp;swallowing. Most autonomous functions are involuntary but they can often work in conjunction with the&nbsp;somatic nervous system&nbsp;which provides voluntary control.</p><h2>Sensory motor Cortex</h2><p>The sensory-motor cortex registers sensation that is connected with specific body parts or body functions. The motor strip is part of the frontal lobe and is anterior to the sensory cortex, which is in the parietal lobe. Collectively, the sensory-motor cortex forms the central lobes of the brain. The primary motor cortex is Brodmann area 4, which works with other motor areas of the brain to plan and execute movements. The primary motor cortex receives thalamic inputs from different cell bodies within the thalamus. The nerve fibers that cast somatosensory information all over the body. &nbsp;The sensory-motor cortex is made up of Brodmann areas 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.</p><p style="text-align: center;"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/CENTRAL%20LOBE.png" alt="CENTRAL LOBE" width="300" height="228" style="font-size: 1rem;" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle"></p><h2><a name="_Toc28940415">Homunculus</a></h2>

<p>&nbsp;</p>

<p>The homunculus is a neurological map that corresponds to the
brain’s territory for different body parts. Homunculus is a Latin term that
literally means “little man.”&nbsp; The
anatomically correct homunculus demonstrates the brain area that is overly
proportioned for the hands, mouth and tongue, second only to the ears, nose and
eyes.</p><p><br></p>

<p style="text-align: left; "><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/homunculus%201.png" alt="homunculus 1" width="600" height="305" style="text-align: center; " class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Homunculus%202.png" alt="homunculus 2" width="260" height="282">&nbsp;<!--[endif]--></p><p style="text-align: right;"><br></p><p></p><h3>Temporal Lobes</h3><p>The temporal lobe is so named
because of its proximity to the temples. It is positioned toward the base of
the center of the cortex, just behind the temples. The&nbsp;temporal lobe&nbsp;is involved
in&nbsp;primary&nbsp;auditory perception, such as hearing, and holds
the&nbsp;primary&nbsp;auditory cortex. <a name="_Hlk28772267">The&nbsp;<b>primary</b>&nbsp;auditory
cortex receives sensory information from the ears and secondary areas process
the information into meaningful units such as speech and words</a>. Much of the auditory work of the
temporal lobes is processed through the top of the temporal lobes—the superior
temporal gyrus. This region directly receives sound input from the ear. Some of
the other important functions of this brain region are:</p>

<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->a.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<!--[endif]-->The formation of visual memories.
In coordination with the amygdala and the hippocampus, this region create long
term memories of conscious events. </p>

<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->b.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<!--[endif]-->The interpretation of visual
stimuli (this region recognizes faces and reads body language)</p>

<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->c.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<!--[endif]-->The controlling of unconscious and
automatic relations, such as hunger and thirst</p>

<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->d.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<!--[endif]-->The production of speech, which
involves a conscious choice of what to say (this region is involved in “tip-of
the-tongue” phenomena.</p>

<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->e.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<!--[endif]-->The recognition of language (both
verbal and non-verbal).</p>



<p><!--[if !supportLists]-->f.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<!--[endif]-->Kolb &amp; Wishaw (1990) have
identified eight principle symptoms of temporal lobe damage: 1) disturbance of auditory
sensation and perception, 2) disturbance of selective attention of auditory and
visual input, 3) disorders of visual perception, 4) impaired organization and
categorization of verbal material, 5) disturbance of language comprehension, 6)
impaired long-term memory, 7) altered personality and affective behavior, 8)
altered sexual behavior. The temporal lobes includes the hippocampal formation and the
inferior horn of the lateral ventricle.</p>

<p>The temporal lobe is made up for Brodmann areas 20 21, 22, 28, 35,
36, 37, 38, 41, 42, and 52.</p><p style="text-align: center;"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Temporal%20Lobes.png" alt="Temporal Lobes" width="300" height="242" style="font-size: 1rem;" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle"></p><p></p><p style="text-align: center; "><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/temporal%20brodmann.png" alt="temporal brodmann" width="300" height="224" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle"><br></p><p></p><h2><a name="_Toc28940417">Parietal Lobes</a></h2>

<p>The parietal
lobes are divided into the superior and inferior parietal lobes. This region of
the brain is known largely for visuo-spatial attention, navigation, the
integration of senses and the major sensory inputs from the skin, which relay
through the thalamus to the parietal lobes. The parietal lobe is abutted by the
Rolandic Fissure, which runs coronally through the brain, the Sylvian Fissure,
which separates the temporal lobe from the parietal and the frontal lobe, and
the parieto-occipital sulcus.</p>

<p>The posterior
parietal cortex is made of the superior parietal lobe (Brodmann areas 5 and 7)
and the inferior parietal lobes (Brodmann areas 39 and 40, which are separated
by the intraparietal sulcus. This sulcus and the adjacent gyri are essential in
limb and eye movement. Each hemisphere rules the sensation of the skin on the
opposite side of the body. The parietal lobes are used for the manipulation of
objects. The parietal lobe also includes the dorsal stream of vision, which is
the “where” in space an object appears. And the “how” stream, which has to do
with vision for action.</p>

<h3><a name="_Toc28940418"></a><a name="_Toc16242865">Inferior Parietal Lobule</a> (BA 39 &amp; 40)</h3>

<p>The inferior parietal lobule has been involved in the
perception of emotions in facial stimuli,<sup> </sup>and interpretation of
sensory information. The Inferior parietal lobule is concerned with language,
mathematical operations, and body image, particularly the supramarginal gyrus
and the angular gyrus. </p><p></p><p></p><h3><a name="_Toc28940419">Superior Parietal Lobe (BA 5 &amp; 7)</a></h3>

<p>There is a
great deal of activity at the superior parietal lobe. This area is responsible
for spatial orientation, as well as sensory input from the hand.&nbsp; This region is also responsible for the
integration of sensory information in various modalities, including navigation
and orienting oneself in space. It is the main sensory area as related to touch
and sensory inputs from the skin (touch, temperature and pain receptors), which
are relayed through the thalamus).&nbsp; </p><p style="text-align: center;"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/parietal%20lobes.jpg" alt="parietal lobes" width="300" height="281" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle" style="font-size: 1rem;"></p><p></p><p></p><h2><a name="_Toc28940420">Occipital Lobe</a></h2>

<p>The occipital
lobe of the brain is divided into Brodmann areas 17, 18 and 19. This region is
known as the visual cortex of the brain. Visual nerves run straight from the
eye to the primary visual cortex to the visual association cortex. The lateral
occipital sulcus divides the occipital gyrus into a superior and inferior part.
The cuneus is a smaller lobe in the occipital lobe of the brain. This region
is bounded anteriorly by the parietao-occipital sulcus, and inferiorly by the
calcitrine sulcus. </p>

<p>The occipital
lobe is responsible for visual processing. This includes the perception of
light, intensity, motion, shapes, patterns, and color. Pattern recognition is
important for piecing together words, reading sentences, and decoding visual
stimuli in general.</p><p style="text-align: center;"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Occipital%20Lobes.png" alt="Occipital Lobes" width="300" height="235" style="font-size: 1rem;" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle"></p><p></p><p></p><h2><a name="_Toc28940421">Cerebellum</a></h2>

<p><b>&nbsp;</b></p>

<p>The
cerebellum is the hindbrain structure that is connected to the brainstem by
fibers that carry information into and out of its interior. The main function
of the cerebellum is coordinating movement and planning motor activity
(balance, muscle tension, joint position, and coordinated movements). It is
folded, like the cortex, which gives it high information processing power. </p>

<p>Eighty per cent of the brain’s neurons are in the cerebellum (Herculano-Houzel, 2010)
and emerging literature (Schmahmann, 1997; 1998, 2000; Teicher, Anderson, &amp;
Polcari, 2012; Levin, 2009) suggests that the cerebellum plays a significant
role in regulating the cerebrum, both cortically and sub-cortically. This is
the part of the brain that remembers how to ride a bike, and remembers being
rocked by mother.</p>

<p>The cerebellum has strong connections with the brainstem and is
situated behind the brainstem (inside the skull) in humans. Because the
cerebellum is a simpler form of cortex, it consists of only three layers&nbsp; (as opposed to the more evolved cerebral
cortex, which has six layers). Parts of the cerebellum are quite old in the
evolutionary sense, and parts are relatively newer. This “little brain” is
involved in motor coordination and also in the planning of movements. The
cerebellum is involved with motor control and is part of the motor system,
inﬂuencing posture, gait, and voluntary movements. Many of the connections to
the cerebellum, including pathways and nuclei, are found in the brainstem.</p>

<p>According to
Sebern Fisher (2014), Babies and young children learn through their senses and
the integration of sensory input. Sensory integration is the province of the
parietal cortex and the cerebellum . . . . the development of the infant’s
cerebellum depends mostly on the security, consistency, and rhythmicity of his
parents’ holding. When there is a history of significant neglect, the mother
does not hold her infant with intentionality or feeling. Many in fact report
never having been rocked or held, activities which promote the development of
the cerebellum (22). Some folks comment that they feel an emptiness at the back
of their head, where a loving hand would normally cradle the baby (22).</p><p style="text-align: center;"><img src="@@PLUGINFILE@@/Cerebellum.png" alt="Cdrebellum" width="300" height="241" style="font-size: 1rem;" class="img-responsive atto_image_button_middle"></p><p></p>

<p><br><!--[endif]--></p><br><p></p>